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EVERYDAYTONALITYII
Tonicalneighbourhoodphone (Fig.56,p.304)
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Formycomradeandcolleague Franco,forhisstudents —andformine,too.
2014-08-02, 01:53 THISISAPROVISIONALVERSION CHAPTER15&THEPREFACEHAVEYETTOBERE‐WRITTEN REFERENCEAPPENDIXINCOMPLETE,NOINDEX, TABLEOFCONTENTSUNEDITED
EVERYDAYTONALITYII —Towardsatonaltheoryofwhatmostpeoplehear—
by PhilipTagg
Secondedition
NewYork&Huddersfield,2014 TheMassMediaMusicScholars’Press FirsteditionNewYork&Montréal,2009; minorrevisions,2011‐09‐19(version1.2)and2012‐04‐06(version1.3)
Thisversion(2.3)2014‐08‐01
Tagg,Philip:EverydayTonality TheMassMediaScholars’Press,Inc. NewYork&Huddersfield,2014 iv+334pages.978‐0‐9701684‐4‐3. Typing,layoutandeditingbytheauthor.
Keywords:music,popularmusic, musicology,musictheory, tonality,modality,melody, harmony,polyphony, chords,harmony
FFBkTOC.fm. 2014-08-02, 01:53
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TableofContents2014‐08‐02,01:53 VERSION2.1,2014‐07‐13[frontcover]1 Unalterednon‐ioniantertialharmony284
VERSION2.3,2014‐08‐02[frontcover]1
EVERYDAYTONALITYII5 Preface(under reconstruction) 2014-08-02, 01:52 15 Whythisbook?15 Why‘EverydayTonalityII’?17 Thereareatleastsevenreasonsforproducingasecondedition.17
Basicterms20 Who’sthebookfor?21 Caveatsaboutthetitleandcontents21 Basicstructureandcontents23 Thebookproper(15chapters)23 Rationaleandreservations23
Surprisingdiscoveries27 Summaryofchapters27 ALLTHISISPROVISIONAL27
Appendices31 Glossary31 Referenceappendix31 Internetreferences32 Fontresources32 Index33
Formalandpractical33 Cross‐referencingandorderoftopics33 Musicalsourcereferences34 Referencesystem34 Accessingandusingmusicalsources34 Onlinerecordings34 Onlinenotation35
Formalia36 Tonaldenotation36 Notenames37 Scaledegreeabbreviations37 Octavedesignationandregister40 Scaledegreechordshorthand40 Chords40 1.Lead‐sheetchordshorthand40 2.Quartalchorddesignationsymbols41 3.Roman‐numeralchordshorthand41
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Tagg: Everyday Tonality II — Contents Musicexamples(notated)43 8vaand15mabassa44
Sequences,intervalsandsections44
Hyphens(‐),arrows(?),shuttles(\)andloops({})44 Sectionorkey?44
Capitalsanditalics45 Modenames45 Smallcapitals45 Italics46
Abbreviations46 Timingsanddurations46 Footnotes46
Acknowledgements47
1.Note,pitch,tone49 Note49 Pitch51 Tonalnotenames53
Tone,tonal,tonality55 ‘Tonal’and‘tonical’56 ‘Tonal’and‘modal’58 Tonality,Tonart,Tonalité,Tonicity,Tonicality60
Othermeaningsof‘tone’62
Timbreandtone63 Summaryin15points67 Bridge68
2.Tuning,octave,interval69 Generaltuningsystems69 Extra‐octavetuning69
Intra‐octavetuning71 Intervals71 Octave72 Intervalsandintra‐octavetuning74
Equal‐tonetuning78 Instrument‐specifictuning83 Summaryin14points87
3.Heptatonicmodes89 Intro 89 Scales,modes,tonalvocabulary91 Ionianisation( )94 Modesand‘modality’96 Heptatonic:whyseven?97
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Theheptatonic‐diatonic‘church’modes98 Theory98 Examples103 Ionian: Dorian: Phrygian: Lydian: Mixolydian: Aeolian:
Hypo’modes116 Non‐diatonicheptatonicmodes116 Maqamat,flattwosandforeignness118 Basicconceptsandtheory118 Tetrachordsandjins122
Hijazandphrygian124 ‘¡VivaEspaña!’132
Balkanmodes138 Bartókmodes142
Summaryin14points150 Onelastpoint151
4.Non‐heptatonicmodes155 Tritonicandtetratonic155 Pentatonic157 Anhemitonicpentatonic158 Doh‐pentatonic159 La‐pentatonic160 Ré‐pentatonic161 Bluespentatonic162 Doh‐pentatonicblues163 La‐pentatonicblues165
Theoreticalbridgefromfivetosix167
Hexatonicmodes169 Nonames169 Majorhexatonic173 Minorhexatonic174 Quartalorréhexatonic176
Non‐tonicalmodes177 Thewhole‐tonescale177 Octatonic179
Finalthoughtsonnon‐ionianmodes179 Summaryin14points181
5.Melody183
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Definingparameters183 Generalcharacteristicsofmelody183 Metaphoricalnomenclature185
Typologiesofmelody186 Structuraltypologies187 Pitchcontour187 Tonalvocabulary190 Dynamicsandmodeofarticulation191 Rhythmicprofile192 Bodyandmelodicrhythm192 Languageandmelodicrhythm193
Culturallyspecificmelodicformulae194 Patternsofrecurrence197
Connotativetypologies200 ‘Dream’200 ‘Supermusic’201 ‘Recitation’202
Melisma203 Summaryin11points206
6.Polyphony209 Polyphony:threemeanings209 Drone211 Heterophony214 Homophony216 Counterpoint218 Summaryin7points221
7.Chords223 Definitionandscope223 Tertialtriads224 Romannumerals224 Inversions229
Recognitionoftertialchords229
Leadsheetchordshorthand233 Leadsheetchordshorthandtable:explanations235 Basicrationaleofleadsheetchordshorthand238 Symbolcomponents239 Notenameofthechord’sroot239 Tertialtriadtype240 Typeofseventh240 Ninths,elevenths,thirteenths241 Alteredfifths242
Tagg: Everyday Tonality II — Contents Additionalsymbols242 Omittednotes242 Addedninthsandsixths243 Suspendedfourthsandninths244 Inversions244 Anomalies246 Flat,sharp,plusandminus246
Enharmonicspelling246
Non‐tertialchords247
Summaryin7points247
8.‘Classical’harmony249 Intro249 Historyanddefinitions251
Classicalharmony253 Triadsandtertialharmony254 Syntax,narrative,andlinear‘function’256 Voiceleading,theionianmode,modulationanddirectionality256
Thekeyclock(circleoffifths)259 Cadentialmini‐excursion262 Thekeyclock(reprise)265 Circle‐of‐fifthsprogressions266 Anticlockwise/flatwards266 Clockwise/sharpwards:aprovisionalnote269
Partialdissolutionofclassicalharmony270
Classicalharmonyinpopularmusic271 Maincharacteristics271
Summaryin6points275
9.Non‐classicaltertialharmony277 Non‐classicaltertial:intro277 Preliminaries277 Ionianmodeandbarré279 Majortriadsinnon‐classicaltertialharmony280 PermanentPicardythird280 Powerchordexcursion284 Backto‘acoustic’tertiality288
Unalterednon‐ioniantertialharmony290 Phrygiantertialharmony292 Lydiantertialharmony293 Mixolydian294 Aeoliantertialharmony295
Summaryin5points296
10.Quartalharmony297
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Theory297 No‘sus’,no‘add’,no‘omit’297 Basicconcepts298 Chordshorthand298 Quartalandquintal299
Quartaltriadsandthekey‐clockneighbourhood299 Crossingneighbourhoodborders306
Quartalhistoriesandexamples310 Elevens,theUSAandcorporatemodernity310 Euroclassicalthirdlessness319 Quartaljazz327 Quartalrock332 Quartalpop337 ‘Folk’fourthsandfifths338 Banjotunings338 Counterpoise340 Opentuninganddrones344 TheTailorandtheMouse’348
Summaryin18points353
11.One‐chordchanges357 Harmonicimpoverishment?357 Extensionalandintensional360 Thewondersofonechord362 G?WhichG?364 Summaryin5points373
12.Chordshuttles375 Aboutthematerial376
Supertonicshuttles(I\II)378 Plagalshuttles379 Quintalshuttles(I\V)385 Submediantalshuttles(I\VI)388 Subtonicshuttles(I\$VII)393 Shuttleorcounterpoisesandwich?400
Summaryin16points403
13.Chordloops1405 Circularmotion405 Vamps408 Loopsandturnarounds408
Vamp,bluesandrock415
‘Classic’rock’n’roll:IV-I 416 Outgoing,medialandincomingchords418
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Summaryin8points423
14.Chordloops&bimodality425 Ionianormixolydian?425 Spotthekey430
Aeolianandphrygian437 Mediantalloops446 RockdorianandI‐III447 Doubleshuttleexcursion449
Ionianmediantal‘narrative’and‘folk’dorian449
15.The‘YesWeCan’chords453 FFBk15Obama.fm.2014‐08‐02,00:28STILLTOEDIT!!!453
Thefourchords454 LaterenaissanceandAndeanbimodality455 Fourchords,fourchanges457 Firstimpressions:fromzerotoI 458 Harmonicdeparture:fromItoIII 460 460
I - iii - vi - IV 471 I - V - vi - IV 473 IOCMincombination476
Glossary479 FFBkGlossary.fm.2014‐08‐02,00:08INCOMPLETE!!!479
Referenceappendix503 Explantions503 FFBkBib.fm.2014‐08‐02,00:08503
0‐9505 A505 B507 C511 D514 E516 F517 G519 H520 I523 J523 K524 L525
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Preface (under reconstruction) 2014-08-02, 01:53 Whythisbook? Itwasin2006thatmyfriendandcolleague,FrancoFabbri,asked metoproduceabookbasedonsomeencyclopediaarticlesI’dorig‐ inallywrittenbetween1998and2000.1Iwasslowtorespondtohis requestbecauseIdidn’tseethenhowrepackagingthatworkcould havemuchpositiveimpactonmusicstudies.Twothingsmademe changemymind. ThefirstwaswhenFrancoshowedmeanItalianmusictheorytext‐ book.‘Look’,hesaid,‘thisisallmystudentshavetogoby’.Skim‐ ming through its pages I realised that, like equivalents in other languages,itdealtonlywithcertaintonalelementsofeuroclassical music2andthatitpaidparticularattentiontoconventionalnotions ofharmonywithinthattradition.Thatquickglancethroughthat textbook reminded me of a recurrent problem I had to confront whenwritingtheoriginalencyclopediaarticles:howtotalkabout common tonal practices that don’t conform to the tonal theory taughtinconservatoriesanddepartmentsofmusic[ology].Forex‐ ample,explainingsomethingascommonandasostensiblysimple as the La Bamba chord loop (as in La Bamba, Guantanamera, Wild Thing,PataPata,Twist&Shoutetc.)intermsoftonic,subdominant anddominantis,Ithink,aboutasproductiveasusingtheoriesof combustiontoexplainhowapulleyworks.Andyetsomemusic scholarsarestillatthesamegame:I’veevenseenthemtrytoap‐ plySchenkeriannotionsofdirectionalitytotonalconfigurationsin whichthenotionofadominantisatbestquestionable,ifnotalto‐ getherirrelevant.
1. 2.
SeeEPMOW—EncyclopediaofPopularMusicoftheWorld—vol.II(Tagg,2002). ThroughoutthisbookIuseEUROCLASSICALtorefertoEuropeanclassicalmusic (c.1650‐c.1910)ratherthantotheclassicalorlearnedmusictraditionsof,say, Tunisia,India,CambodiaorChina(seep.21andGlossary,p.487).Iuse‘euro‐ classical’alsobecauseit’sshorterthansemanticallycomparableexpressions like‘theWesternEuropeanclassicaltradition’,‘Europeanartmusic’,etc.
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Ifrestrictednotionsoftonalityweretheonlyproblemwithinstitu‐ tionalisedtraditionsofmusicallearningintheWest,thingswould not be so bad. Unfortunately the problems go much deeper be‐ causethatsametraditionhasfocussedalmostexclusivelyontonal issuesandtendedtosteerclearofparameterslikemetricity,perio‐ dicity,timbreandsonicstaging,whichsomescholarsstillearnestly believetobeofsecondaryimportance.There’snoroomheretoex‐ plore conventional European musicology’s predilection for har‐ monic,melodicandthematicparametersthatcan,atleasttosome extent,begraphicallyrepresentedonthepageasblobs,linesand squiggles,excepttosaythatWesternstaffnotationdevelopedto scriballyencodeaspectsofmusicintheeuroclassicaltraditionthat were difficult to memorise, rather than to record the specifics of othermusiccultures.Thistonalfixationhasencouragedamindset according to which monometric music, whose pitches can be ar‐ rangedinoctavesconsistingoftwelveequalintervalseach,canbe analysed because it is notatable; other types of music are, so to speak,neither.Indeed,eventhedownbeatanticipationsand‘neu‐ tral’thirdssooftenheardinEnglish‐languagepopularmusicfrom thetwentiethcenturylookincongruousandclumsyinWesternno‐ tation,whileaspectsofsoundtreatmentessentialtotheexpressive qualitiesofmusicwehearonadailybasis—echo,delay,reverb, saturation,phasing,etc.—areconspicuousbytheirabsence.3Con‐ ventionalapproachestomusicanalysisintheWestcertainlyhave theiruseinhelpingusappreciatehowasenseofnarrativeworks in, say, classical sonata form (‘diataxis’, the ‘extensional’ aes‐ thetic),buttheyhavedoneverylittletohelpusunderstandother equally important aspects of form that exist inside the extended present(‘syncrisis’,‘intensional’aesthetics).4 3.
4.
See,forexample,thesemanticcontortionof‘inverse’( )v.‘normal’( ) intheHarvardDictionaryofMusic(1958)entryfordotting,eventhough (‘inverse’dotting)isidentifiedas‘usual’incertaintypesofmusic(seeTagge Intensionalandextensionalaretwousefulconcepts,firstcoinedbyAndrew Chester(1970).Forshortdefinitionoftheextendedpresent,seeGlossaryand Tagg(2013:252‐3).Diataxisandsyncrisis,seeGlossaryandChapters11and12 inTagg(2013:383‐484).
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Thefirsteditionofthisbookwaspublishedin2009sincewhenI mainlyworkedonMusic’sMeanings:amodernmusicologyfornon‐ musos(Tagg,2013).InthatbookIalsotriedtorightafewofthe graphocentric mentioned above, but I regret that so much more needstobedone.It’sataskthatwouldinvolveseverallifetimesof researchandresultinseveralbooksofthissize.Still,atleastone thing became clear when working on Music’s Meanings: I would havetorewriteEverydayTonality.
Why‘EverydayTonalityII’? Thereareatleastsevenreasonsforproducingasecondedition. [1]HalfthefirsteditionofEverydayTonalityconsistedofreworked encyclopediaentriesthatwerefranklytooshorttoallowforthein‐ depthexplorationessentialtoaproperunderstandingofthetopic underdiscussion.Thatiscertainlythecasewiththeexposéabout quartalharmonywhichhasincreasedinsizefromadozenpagesin the2009editiontoa60‐pagechapterinthisone.It’ssimplyamuch morewidespread—andwidelymisunderstood—phenomenonof everydaytonalitythancouldreasonablyfitintojustafewpages. [2]Somecommonaspectsofeverydaytonalitywerenotcoveredat allinthefirstedition,forexamplebasslinesandhexatonicmodes. Whilebasslinesaren’tdealtwithsystematicallyinthiseditionei‐ ther—it’sthetopicofanotherbook,Iregret—hexatonicmodesare. Iwantedtounderstandwhytermsofstructuraldesignationexisted for pentatonic and heptatonic modes but not for hexatonicism. I neverfoundoutwhy,butatleastIamableinthiseditiontopropose asystematicbasisforunderstandingsomecommonlyusedhexa‐ tonicmodes.5 [3]Themodesdiscussedinthepreviouseditionweremainlydia‐ tonicandheptatonic—the‘church’modes,includingtheionian— while other modes were passed over in silence. I felt that I had 5.
Thewhole‐tonescaleisalsohexatonicandtonal(itcontainssixtones)butitis nottonicalbecauseitcontainsnoperfectfifthandbecausethereisnohierar‐ chyofscalesteps(¼,½,1½etc.aswellaswholetones).Besides,liketheocta‐ tonicscale,itcanonlybetransposedtooneotherposition.
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lapsedintoatonallyethnocentricdefaultmode(punintended)that neededcorrectionifmycritiqueofconventionalmusictheory’seth‐ nocentrismweretohaveanycredibility.That’swhythiseditionalso addressessome‘non‐European’modes,particularlythosecontain‐ ingflattwosand/oraugmentedseconds,inordertoexplainhow theywork,includingtheirroleasethnocentrictonalembodimentof anexotic‘Other’.Duetothecorrectionofthisomission,tothethe‐ orisation of hexatonic modes, to the improved theorisation of penta‐andheptatonicmodes,andtotheinclusionofmanymore musicexamples(see§5),thesizeofthechapterson(melodic)mode hasincreasedfromonetwelve‐pagechaptertotwochapterscover‐ ing88pages. [4]The2009editioncontainedafewfactualerrorsandlacunaethat havebeenputtorightinthisedition.6 [5]Duetorestrictionsofspace,timeandcopyrightlegislation,the original encyclopedia entries included very few music examples. Eventhoughthereweremoreexamplesinthe2009editionthanin theencyclopediaarticles, Istillfelt therewasinsufficient musical meatonthetheoreticalbone.That’swhyI’veradicallyincreasedthe numberofmusicexamplesinthiseditionandresetthemusingbet‐ ter notation and image‐processing software. This expansion of spacedevotedto‘actualmusic’will,Ihope,makethebookmore convincingandmorefuntoread.I’vealsotriedtoinclude,wher‐ everpermissible,linkstoonlinerecordingsofthemusiccitedasno‐ tation(see‘Musicalsourcereferences’,p.34). [6]The2009editioncontainedafewpassageswhereIfellintothe trapofterminologicalinertiaandinexactitude.Particularlyembar‐ rassingwastheoccasionaluseof‘mode’intheabsurdlyrestricted senseofanyheptatonic‘church’ modeexceptthe ionian,andthe confusionof‘tonical’(havingatonalcentre)with‘tonal’(havinga tone or tones). Such terminological lapses have been corrected in thisedition. 6.
OneoftheseerrorsconcernsmyapparentmisunderstandingofGlarean’sthe‐ oryaboutthehypo‐modes.Ihaveremovedthatshortsectionfromthisedition becauseitisrelativelyperipheraltotheissuesunderdiscussion.
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[7]Mostimportantly,theconceptsoftonalitycirculatinginWestern academiesofmusic,whatevertheircanonicrepertoire,arestillall tooofteninadequate,illogicalandethnocentric.Theysimplydon’t domuchtohelpmusicstudentslivinginamulticultural,internet‐ linked,‘global’worldtogettogripswiththetonalnutsandboltsof allthosemusicsthatdon’tfittheconceptualgridofcategoriesde‐ velopedtoexplaincertainaspectsoftheWesternclassicalorclassi‐ caljazztraditions.
Reasonnumber7isalsowhyItryinthisbooktobringsomeorder intotermsdenotingimportanttonalaspectsofmusicalstructura‐ tion.TodothatIhavetoexplainwidelyusedconceptsliketone, melody,accompanimentandharmonyinwaysthatrelatethosephe‐ nomena,notjusttothemusicofcertainminoritieslivingincertain partsofacertaincontinentduringaverylimitedperiodofitshis‐ tory(theeuroclassicalmusictraditionfromc.1730toc.1950;),but toamuchwiderrangeofmusicsandpeople.Ofcourse,thattradi‐ tionis,alongwiththejazzcanon,anessentialingredientintheev‐ eryday tonality of millions, and its unique characteristics need clearexplanationinabookdevotedtothe‘everyday’.Butsuchex‐ planation is also impossible if the specific dynamic of those ca‐ nonic traditions cannot be understood in relation to the much broaderarrayoftonalitiesineverydaycirculation.Thedifficultyis thatthevastmajorityofthoseothermusicsislamentablyunder‐ theorised in the sense that existing music theory often seems to haveeithermisleadingtermsornotermsatalltodesignatetheir structurationandtheirspecifictonaldynamics. Thereformandde‐ethnocentrificationofmusictheoryisanuphill battleinthecontextofinstitutionswhoseexistencereliesonmusi‐ caltraditionsthathavetobesociallydeadormoribundinorderfor them to become fixed ascanons —for example, theeuroclassical canon, the jazz canon, the ‘academic safari’ canon and, more re‐ cently,therockcanon.Suchfixationofrepertoire,ofitsaesthetics andstructuraltheory,ismoreoftenthannotunderstoodasane‐ cessityininstitutionsthatrepeatcoursecontentfromoneyearto the next in the name of consistency or cost cutting, and that are subjectedto‘leaguetables’of‘excellence’thathavetobeconcocted
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onthebasisofaconsensusabout‘whateverybodydoes’or‘always hasdone’tofunctionatall.IfEXCELmeanstosurpass,tostandout, tobepre‐eminent,etc.,excellencebasedonleaguetablesisabla‐ tantcontradictiointerminis.Ihopethisbookwillcontribute,atleast inasmallway,toexposing‘excellence’astheoxymoronofmedi‐ ocrityitreallyis.7
Basicterms BeforegoinganyfurtherIhadbetterexplainwhatImeanbycer‐ taintermsthatrecurthroughoutthebook,rightfromthestart,one eveninitstitle.Thefollowinglistgivesnomorethanterse,tempo‐ rary definitions of terms explained in greater detail at various pointsinthebookandintheGlossary(p.479,ff.). • NOTE:singlediscretesoundoffinitedurationinmusic; • TONE:NOTEwithdiscerniblefundamentalpitch; • TONAL:havingthepropertiesofaTONE; • TONALITY:mannerinwhichTONEsareconfigured; • TONIC:musicalkeynoteorreferenceTONE; • TONICAL:havingaTONICorkeynote. • MODE:abstractionofTONALvocabularyreducedtosingleoccur‐ rencesofitsconstituentNOTEs. • MODAL:havingthecharacteristicsofaMODE; • POLYPHONY:musicinwhichatleasttwosoundsofdiffering pitchortimbreareheardatthesametime; • POLYPHONIC:havingthecharacteristicsofPOLYPHONY; • CHORD:simultaneoussoundingofatleasttwodifferently namedtones; • TRIAD:CHORDconsistingofthreedifferentlynamedtones; • THIRD:pitchintervalofthreeorfoursemitones(minor/major); • FOURTH:pitchintervaloffivesemitones(‘perfect’); • TERTIAL(ofCHORDs):basedonthestackingofTHIRDs; • QUARTAL(ofCHORDs):basedonthestackingofFOURTHs; • SHUTTLE:repeatedto‐and‐fromovementbetweentwochords; • LOOP:repeatedsequenceoftypicallythreeorfourdifferent chords. 7.
Oxymoron:anintentionalcontradictiointerminisusedforcomiceffect.
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OtherrecurrenttermsrequiringinitialexplanationareEUROCLASSI‐ CALandKEY‐CLOCK. IuseEUROCLASSICALwhenreferringtotheEuropeanclassicalmu‐ sictraditionbecausenotallclassicalmusicisEuropean(e.g.Tuni‐ siannouba,therāgatraditionsofIndia,Cambodiancourtmusic,the yăyuè— 雅乐 —ofimperialChina,etc.). Itendtousetheexpression KEY CLOCKratherthanthemorecum‐ bersome CIRCLE OF FIFTHSbecause (a)it’sshorter; (b)it’seasierto useadjectivally,e.g.‘key‐clockdistance’ratherthan‘circle‐of‐fifths distance’or‘distanceroundthecircleoffifths’. WordsandexpressionslikeHOMOPHONY,HETEROPHONY,COUNTER‐ POINT,COUNTERPOISE, RÉ‐PENTATONIC,LA‐HEXATONIC,HIJAZ, MAJOR‐ ISED PHRYGIAN are all defined in the Glossary and explained in connectionwiththeirpresentationinthisbook. Basicconventionsfortheabbreviatedindicationofscaledegrees andchordsarepresentedunder‘Tonaldenotation’(pp.36‐43).
Who’sthebookfor? This book contains many short music examples, so it’s really for anyonewhocandecipherWesternmusicnotation.Althoughnot totallyessential,someacquaintancewiththerudimentsofmusic theory, including conventional euroclassical or jazz harmony, is probably an advantage. In fact, when writing this book, I’ve mainlyhadinmindthemusicstudentsI’vemetsince1971,andthe conceptual problems they’ve seemed to encounter when they’ve metmeforthesubjectsI’vetaught(chieflyrelatedto‘popular’mu‐ sic,includingmusicandthemovingimage).However,thisbook should also interest anyone who, with some notational literacy, wantstounderstandthetonalmechanismsofwidelydisseminated typesofmusic.
Caveatsaboutthetitleandcontents TherepertoireIdrawonforillustrationandgeneralisationmust invariably be music that I’m in some way familiar with because there’snotmuchpointinwritingaboutthingsofwhichIhavelittle
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ornoknowledge.Thatmeans,justasinvariably,thatthe‘everyday tonality’inthebook’stitlecouldneverpossiblybeeveryone’sev‐ erydayeverywhereatalltimes.TheproblemisthatSOMETONALEL‐ EMENTS IN WIDELY HEARD MUSIC DIFFUSED IN MAINLY, BUT BY NO MEANS EXCLUSIVELY, ENGLISH‐LANGUAGE CULTURES IN THE LATE TWENTIETH CEN‐ TURY, i.e. MUSIC THATPHILIPTAGG HAS PLAYED, SUNG OR HEARD isnota
verycatchybooktitle.IthereforeapologisetoreaderswhofeelI havetakenthelibertyofshorteningthebook’stitleinanuntoward manner.However,thatabbreviationis,Ithinkforseveralreasons, not entirely misleading. [1] Significant amounts of the everyday musicalfareofindividualsinmanypartsoftheworldinthelate twentiethcenturywasofAnglo‐USorigin.8[2]Mynotionofevery‐ day music is not stylistically restricted: I refer not only to The Beatles butalsotoBachandtopopularmusicfromtheBalkans, LatinAmericaandotherpartsoftheworld.[3]Withsomeexperi‐ ence of non‐anglophone cultures, I am probably able to refer to more non‐anglophone music than many other speakers of my mothertongue.9 Nevertheless, I have to include another caveat about this book’s content.Itconcernsthe EVERYONE’S AN EXPERT AT SOMETHINGsyn‐ drome.Imentionthisbecausestudentswhoaredevotedfansofa particularartist,composerormusicalstylehavesometimesbeen outragedbythefactthatIdidn’tincludetheirareaofexpertiseor objectsofenthusiasminmyteachingorteachingmaterials,orthat theirareawasunder‐represented.Confrontedlikethatinteaching situations, I would nomally apologise and explain my choices whileencouragingtheirenthusiasmandlearningfromtheirexper‐ tise.Thatsortofinteractionislessviableintheauthor‐readerrela‐ tionship.That’swhyIapologiseinadvanceifyoufindmychoice ofmaterialunsatisfactory.Icanonlysuggestthatyouwritemea 8. 9.
i.e.musicforfilms,teleproducts,videogames,andforrecordingsin,orinflu‐ encedby,jazz,blues,pop,rockandotherrelatedEnglish‐languagestyles. Specialisingin‘popularmusic’,Ihavesince1971taughtmusic[ology]interti‐ aryeducationinSweden,theUKandFrancophoneCanada.Ihavealsosince the1980shadfrequentcontactwithcolleaguesandstudentsinbothItalyand LatinAmerica.
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shortemailsuggestinganyimprovementsyouthinkmighthelp.10 MyonlyexcusefortheomissionsthatmayoutrageyouisthatI havehadtocoveranextensiverangeofmusicandmusiciansinor‐ der to avoid the ethnocentric trap; and that meant investigating music about which I previously knew precious little. Indeed, I shouldclarifythatbeforerewritingthisbookIknewpreciouslittle about, for example, Arab maqamat, Greek dromoi, Copland’s film music,flamenco,klezmer,thebanjo,alternateguitartuningsorex‐ treme metal, and that I needed to improve on that ignorance to writeanythingatallcoherentaboutthephrygianmodeorquartal harmony.Besidesthat,Ifeltobligedtotryandtranscriberelevant excerptsbyartistslikeSokratisMálamas,Ermálak,McCoyTyner, King Crimson and Joni Mitchell. The sounds I transcribed were veryinteresting(sometimesalsomoving)buttheprocessofinves‐ tigation and transcription was extremely time‐consuming. It’s in thislightthatIaskreadersoutragedbymyomissionoftheirfa‐ vouritemusictounderstandthatI’vedonewhatIcouldtowiden the repertoire defining the ‘everyday’ in ‘everyday tonality’. I’m onlyonepersonandIhaven’tseenmyselfasanysortofSuperman sincetheignorantlyomnipotentageofeighteen.
Basicstructureandcontents REQUIRESREWRITING!2014‐08‐02,01:53
Thebookproper(15chapters) Rationaleandreservations Apartfromthisprefaceandthevariousappendices(addenda,ref‐ erences,index,etc.)whichI’llexplainshortly,thisbookconsistsof 15??chapters,manyofwhichdealwithissuesofharmony.That focusmightseemodd,giventhatsomanymusicologistsoftheeu‐ roclassicalhavealreadywrittensomuchaboutharmony.Butthat bodyoflearning,unfortunately,isalsoamajorpartoftheproblem because,asitturnedoutinthehands‐onmusicanalysisIhadtodo 10. Tocontactme,goto tagg.org,clickContactunderPersonal,thensendmea shortmessageunderEmail.
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tomakesenseofmyown‘everydaytonality’,Ijustcouldn’tapply thetheoreticalgridofconventionalharmonyteachingtoasignifi‐ cantpartofthattonalreality.Ihadtograpplewithpreconceived notionsaboutharmonicimpoverishment,withassumptionsabout monotonicality (that you can only have one keynote at a time), monodirectionality (that most harmonic motion ‘normally’ pro‐ ceeds anticlockwise round the circle of fifths) and with several value‐ladenandoftenmisleadingbutwidelyusedtermslike‘to‐ nality’, ‘modality’, ‘dominant’, ‘subdominant’, ‘suspension’ and ‘perfectcadence’.Don’tgetmewrong:thosenotionscanworkif you want to understand the tonality of Mozart quartets, parlour song,Schlagerorjazzstandards,buttheycanbeseriousepistemic obstacleswhendealingwithLaBamba,SweetHomeAlabama,blues‐ basedrock,folkrock,post‐bopjazz,newsjingles,Huayno,rebetiki, son,oratwelve‐barblues. I’ve tried to include as much as possible of useful pre‐existing ideaswhenaddressingtheproblemsjustmentioned,forexample CarlosVega’sconceptofbimodality(1944)andAllanMoore’suse‐ fullistsofharmonicdeparturesinrockandpop(1992).Evenso, I’ve had to introduce home‐grown terms and ideas in efforts to makesometheoreticalsenseofmy‘everydaytonality’.Thoseef‐ fortsinevitablyledtoafewneologismsliketertial11(asopposedto quartal),counterpoise(tonalcounterweighttoagiventonic)andbi‐ modal reversibility (tonal sequences in one mode which, when re‐ versed, become sequences in another mode). All such terms, includingthosecoveredinMusic’sMeanings(anaphone,genresynec‐ doche, episodic marker, diataxis, syncrisis extensional, intensional and theextendedpresent;seeTagg,2013)areexplainedatrelevantpoints inthisbookand/orgivenashortdefinitioninitsGlossary. Despitevaliantattemptstofuseusefulpre‐existingideaswithmy ownobservations,Iregretthatmuchremainstobedonebeforea comprehensive theory of ‘everyday tonality’ can be produced. Readers are therefore asked to take this book as a work still in progress,aworkthatIhopeothers,reactingtoitsprobableincon‐ sistenciesanddefinitelacunae,willbeabletocorrect,improveand
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25
expand. One practical reason for producing this text is that the bodyofmusictobecoveredinsuchanundertakingistoovastand that,facedwiththechoicebetweenriskingerrororomissionand notwritinganythingatall,Iselectedtheriskyoption.Iamfully awarethattherepertoiretowhichI’vehadaccessis,forpractical reasonsanddespitethesizeoftheReferenceAppendix,butadrop intheoceanofallthemusicthatoughtideallytohavebeenatthe basisofwritingabout‘everydaytonality’.Ithereforeapologisefor omittingreferencetoallthemusicwithwhichreadersarefamiliar andwhichIeitherdidn’tthinkoforjustdidn’tknow. I’vealsohadtorestrictthetonalareasIdealwith,especiallycon‐ cerningquestionsofharmony,sothattheywouldfitintoabookof this size. I chose to omit discussion of medium‐ and long‐term tonal narrative (diataxis) and to concentrate on harmonic proc‐ esses containable within the extended present (syncrisis), more particularly on ‘one‐chord changes’, chord shuttles (two chords) andchordloops(threeorfour).12Therearethreeotherreasonsfor 11. IstartedusingTERTIALinteachingaround1997.Thefirstpublishedappear‐ anceIcouldfindina‘learnedjournal’wasinTagg(1998),sincewhenI’ve useditinfrequently(e.g.Tagg,2000a;Tagg&Clarida,2003).Italsofeatured intheharmonyarticleforEPMOW(Tagg,2002;onlinesince1999).Adecade laterIwaspleasedtodiscoverthatotherscholarshadalsoseentheneedto designatechordscharacterisedbythestackingofthirds,butwastakenaback toseethatthey’dadoptedtheword‘tertian’(sic)todothejob.Istillfailtosee whytheyoptedforthe‐ansuffixtoqualifychordsbasedonstackedthirds whenthe‐alinQUARTAL(not‘quartan’)wasalreadyestablishedasthequali‐ fierofchordsbasedonstackedfourths.Adjectivesendingin‐tianor‐ciantend tobeeithergeo‐ethnic—Alsatian,Croatian,Galician,Grecian,Haïtian,Phoe‐ nician,Venetianetc.—ortoqualifybeliefsystems—Christian,Confucian, etc.—while‐ialendingssendnosuchsignals.There’sacleardifference betweenmartiallawormartialartsontheonehandandMartianlaworMartian artsontheother.Businessesarecommercial,not‘commercian’andmost grown‐upshavefacial,not‘facian’,hair,unlessthey’refromtheplanetFaxor treatFaxasadeity.That’swhy,whenIread‘tertianharmony’Ithinkoflittle greenmenfromtheplanetTersdoingbarbershoptunesinascenefromapre‐ queltoStarWars. 12. Foradiscussionofdiataxisandsyncrisis,seeChapters11and12inMusic’s Meanings(Tagg,2013).Fordefinitionsofdiataxis,syncrisisandextendedpresent, seeGlossary,pp.483,498,487.
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thisfocuson‘nowsound’.[1]Sincethesephenomenaare,thanks totheirallegedharmonicsimplicity,unlikelytoprovokemuchin‐ terest among conventionally trained musos, they are in greater needofbeingseriouslystudiedandtheorised.[2]Sincethesame ‘harmonically impoverished’ phenomena cause little enthusiasm among institutionally trained music experts but are widely dif‐ fusedandapparentlyverypopular,theyarelikelytobecomeinter‐ estingifviewedfromalessconventionalmusicologicalangle.[3] Sinceshuttlesandloopsarebydefinitioncontainablewithinthe limits of the extended present, they highlight short‐term tonal processes less commonly studied in conventional music scholar‐ ship. Theorising these issues of intensional structuration (Chester 1970;Glossaryp.491)bringstolightstructuraldetailofimportance totheunderstandingof‘groove’andtotheidentificationofunits ofmusicalmeaning(musemestacks;seeGlossaryp.494)which,in theirturn,areusefulinthedevelopmentofmusicsemiotics. Now,thissortofattentiontointensionaldetailis,Ibelieve,neces‐ sarybutitdoesmeanthatI’venotbeenabletopursuemymain musicologicalinterest(semioticmusicanalysis)because—andit’s a vicious circle— I think that better structural theory relevant to the issue needs to be developed. I admit lapsing into semiotic modeonseveraloccasionsbutI’veexercisedconsiderablerestraint andtriedtofocusotherwiseonstructuraltheory.13 ThisfocusmeansofcoursethatI’vebeenunabletoconsiderinany detaillongerdurationalunitslikethe12‐barblues,the32‐barjazz standard,oreventhe8‐and16‐bartonalunitssocommoninpop‐ ularmusic.Ialsohadtoabandonmyoriginalrashideatoinclude anoverviewofwhatisprobablythemostwidelyheardsourceof everydaytonality:film,TVandgamesmusic.Alltheseomissions areinmyviewregrettableandunsatisfactorybutIhopereaders willagreewith10cc(1975)that‘4%ofsomething’sbetterthan10% ofnothing’. 13. ItriedtoconfrontsemioticissuesinMusic’sMeanings(Tagg,2013).
Tagg: Everyday Tonality II— Preface
27
Surprisingdiscoveries When rewriting this book I came across a lot of music I’d either never heard before or which I’d forgotten from way back when. Mostofthismusicnevermadeitintothebookbutitkeptmebusy andwasalwaysinterestinginsomewayoranother.Herearesome morepersonalsurprisesthatmay(ormaynot)beofinterest. • Ifoundnexttonosystematictheoryofhexatonicmodes,even thoughthebasicallydoh‐hexatonictuneIt’sNotUnusual(Tom Jones,l965)isitselfdecidedly‘notunusual’. • SinceBartókisoneofmyfavouritecomposers,Iwasdelighted andsurprisedtofindouthowmanycelebratedjazzandrock musiciansarealsofansofhiswork. • Iwassurprisedtodiscoverandsaddenedtorealisehowcon‐ servativejazztheorycanbeinitsterminology,andhowmuch itseemsstuckinthetimewarpofbebopandII-V-Ithinking. • Iwasgobsmackedtodiscoverhowconservative,ethnocentric andnotation‐fixatedmusictheoryteachingcanstillbe.14 Summaryofchapters ALLTHISISPROVISIONAL Chapter1.Thereismuchconfusionaboutverybasictermsinmusic theory. NOTE, PITCHand TONEarethreeofthem.Thischapterdis‐ cussesanddefinesthoseterms.Extraattentionispaidtocleaning uptheconceptualchaosofthewordsTONALandTONALITYasthey areusedinconventionalWesternmusictheory. CHAPTER2continueswithnotionsofPITCH,focussingonquestions ofTUNINGandtheOCTAVE.Thischapteristhemostacoustic‐phys‐ ics‐orientatedofthemallandprovidesatheoreticalbasisforun‐ derstandinghowtones(asin‘tonality’)work. CHAPTER 3 —HEPTATONIC MODES— is the first of two about the 14. Ievenheardofstudentsforbiddenfromreferringtothephrygianminorsec‐ ondinEas (‘flattwo’)because (flattwoinE)hasno‘ ’whennotated! SeeTroubleswithTonalTerminology(Tagg,2013b:)foramoredetaileddiscus‐ sionofproblemsinvolving‘musictheory’inthemodernworld.
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mainly melodic aspect of modes. Harmonic aspects of mode are coveredinChapters9‐10and14.Chapter3startswithadefinition ofmode,raisestheissueofionianisation,critiquesconventionalno‐ tionsofmodalityandexplainswhy7issucha‘magicnumber’in modaltheory.Thefirsthalfofthechapteristhenentirelydevoted totheheptatonic‘church’modesandincludesnumerousmusicex‐ amples,aswellasacritiqueofthemajor‐minor‘happy‐sad’dual‐ ism.Thesecondhalfdealswithnon‐diatonicheptatonicmodes,in particularthosecontainingflattwoand/oranaugmentedsecond. Afterpresentingsomerudimentsofmaqamtheoryofuseinunder‐ standing the modal richness of musics outside the euroclassical, jazz and related repertoires, it examines the phrygian and Hijaz modes in flamenco and Balkan music before discussing ‘Bartók’ modes,includingthelydianflatsevenanditssimilaritytoblues modes. CHAPTER4isabout NON‐HEPTATONIC MODES.Afterashortsection ontri‐andtetratonicmelodythetheoryandwidespreadpractice ofpentatonicism,especiallyitsanhemitonicvariants,isdiscussed insomedetail.Atheoryoftonicalhexatonicmodesthenfollows, followedbyanoverviewofnon‐tonicalmodes.Thechapterends withreflexionsontheperceptionofmodes. CHAPTER5isonMELODY.Afteranexpositionofitsdefiningcharac‐ teristics, melody is presented according to two typologies, one basedoncontour(differentpatternsofupanddown),theotheron connotation.Melodicidentityisdiscussedintermsoftonalvocabu‐ lary,bodilymovement,spokenlanguage,varyingpatternsofrepe‐ tition and, using concepts from rhetoric, its varying modes of presentation.Thechapterendswithbriefsectiononmelisma. CHAPTER6isashortgeneralchapteraboutPOLYPHONY.Itstartsby trying to clear up the conceptual mess in conventional Western musictheoryaboutwhatpolyphonyactuallymeans.Afterthat,var‐ iouscategoriesofpolyphonyaredefinedandexplained,including drone‐accompaniedmusic,heterophony,homophonyandcounterpoint. CHAPTER 7iscalled‘CHORDS’.Afterthecustomarydefinitionsec‐ tion, this chapter basically enumerates, describes and explains
Tagg: Everyday Tonality II— Preface
29
howawidevarietyoftertialchordscanbereferredtointwocom‐ plementary and useful ways: roman numeral designation and lead‐ sheetchordshorthand.Thechapterincludesseveralextensivetables, including: [1] a table of all roman‐numeral triads in all ‘church’ modes;[2]achordrecognitionchartandakeytooverfiftylead‐ sheetchords,allwiththesamerootnote.Theprinciplesofbothro‐ man‐numeral and lead‐sheet chord designation are explained in detail,completewithanomaliesandexceptions. CHAPTER8isthefirstofseveralonharmony.Abriefdefinitionand historyoftheconceptisfollowedbyapresentationof(European) ‘CLASSICAL HARMONY’. After tidying up yet another conceptual messrelatingtonotionslike‘functional’and‘triadic’,theessential term tertial is explained and the basic rules and mechanisms of classical harmony, central also to many popular styles are pre‐ sented.Alsoincludedinthechapterarenotionsofharmonicdirec‐ tionality,aswellastheprinciplesofthecircle‐of‐fifthsor‘keyclock’. CHAPTER 9 is about NON‐CLASSICAL TERTIAL HARMONY, i.e. third‐ basedharmonythatdoesnotfollowtherulesofclassicalharmony. After a discussion of non‐classical ionian harmony it explains thingsliketheimportanceofmajorcommontriadsinestablishing the identity of the ‘church modes’, the option of permanent Picardythirdsinthetonictriadofminor‐keymodes,andthelink between la‐pentatonics and dorian rock harmony. There’s also a usefulchartoftypicalprogressionsineachmodeandexamplesof recordingsinwhichtheyoccur. CHAPTER10islonganddevotedentirelytoQUARTALHARMONY.Af‐ ter initial definitions it sets out the basics of quartal triads, how theycanbedesignatedandhowtheyradicallydifferfromtertial triads.Thenotionoftonicalneighbourhoodisintroducedasawayof understanding the fluid tonal centrality of quartal harmony and how that fluidity can be used to generate harmonic movement. The blurring of borders between quartal and tertial harmony as morefourthsareaddedtoquartalchordsisusedasawayofun‐ derstandingchordsoftheeleventhandtheirimportanceinNorth American music. Distinction is made between quartal harmony
30
Tagg: Everyday Tonality II — Preface
andthequartalvoicingsofpostwarjazz.Numerousexamplesil‐ lustrate instances of quartal everyday tonality, from Bartók to banjo tuning, from Debussy to Stravinsky to corporate jingles, from McCoy Tyner to Joni Mitchell and King Crimson, etc. The chapterendswithdemonstrationsofthelinkbetweendronedac‐ companiment patterns and quartal harmony, plus an 18‐point summaryofthechapter’smainideas. CHAPTER 11hasanintentionallycontradictorytitle—ONE‐CHORD CHANGES—becauseitshowshowonesinglechordis,inmosttypes ofpopularmusic,rarelyjust‘onechord’.Afterrefutingprejudices aboutharmonicimpoverishmentinpopularmusicanddescribing thefundamentalsoftheextendedpresent,theactualnatureofone singlecommonchord—Gmajor—isexaminedinsixteendiffer‐ entpiecesandfoundtoconsistofbetweentwoandfourchords.I argue that the tonal elaboration of ‘single’ chords is an intrinsic partofthemusician’sauralworkandessentialtothe‘groove’iden‐ tifyingbothaparticularpieceandaparticularstyle. CHAPTER12—‘CHORDSHUTTLES’—increasesthenumberofchords from one to two. Drawing mainly on English‐language popular song, a typology of chord shuttles is presented (supertonic, dorian, plagal,quintal,submediantal,aeolianandsubtonic).Examination ofshuttlesinseveralsongs,including‘TheGreatGigInTheSky’ from Pink Floyd’s Dark Side of the Moon (1973) and the Human LeaguehitDon’tYouWantMeBaby(1981),showsthatchordshut‐ tlesofteninvolveambiguoustonicsandthatnooverridingkeynotes canbeestablished.Iarguethatchordshuttlesaredynamicongo‐ ing tonal states, not narrative processes. They are by definition non‐transitional and constitute building blocks in the harmonic constructionofdiataxisinmanytypesofpopularsong. CHAPTER 13 — CHORD LOOPS 1— expands the number of chords fromtwotothreeandfour.Afterdefiningloop,thevamp,oneofthe mostfamousloopsinanglophonepopularsong,isexamined.Dis‐ tinction is made between loop and turnaround. The chapter ends withanexplanationofthegradualbutradicalhistoricalshiftfrom the vamp’s V-I directionality to other, less ionian, types of har‐
Tagg: Everyday Tonality II— Preface
31
monyinrock‐,soul‐andfolk‐influencedstyles. CHAPTER14—CHORDLOOPSANDBIMODALITY—attackstheproblem of understanding how non‐classical tertial harmony works, with howthesamechordsequencecanbeheardintwodifferentmodes, etc. Starting with distinction and confusion between ionian and mixolydian,thischaptersetsoutwaysofestablishing,whererele‐ vant,asingletonicforparticularsequences,theroleofindividual chords within loops, etc. It then examines aeolian and phrygian loops, and proposes a model of bimodal reversibility in efforts to conceptualiseharmonicpracticesquiteforeigntowhatisgenerally taughttomusictheorystudents.Thechapter’sfinalsectiondistin‐ guishesbetweenvariousmediantalloopslikethe‘rockdorian’,the ‘folkdorian’,the‘narrativeionianmediantal’. CHAPTER 15 —THE YES WE CAN CHORDS— focuses on the chord loop used in the online video supporting Obama’s presidential campaignin2008.Itdiscussestheconnotativevalueoftheloopand itscontributiontocreatingthesortofcross‐culturalunitythatthe Obamacampaignwantedtoforge.Themainpointisthatanalys‐ ingmusic’stonalparametersshouldnotbeanarcanetechnicalex‐ ercise foisted on music students but instead a contribution to answering the basic question of music semiotics: ‘why and how doeswhocommunicatewhattowhomandwithwhateffect?’.
Appendices Glossary The Glossary includes explanations of abbreviations and defini‐ tionsoftermswhosemeaningmaybeinneedofclarification.Ifthe definitionsareshorttheywilloftenrefertopagesinthetextwhere amoredetailedexplanationisgiven.TheGlossaryalsocontainsa few more substantial entries that should ideally have been foot‐ notesbutwhichdidnotfitontherelevantpage. Referenceappendix To save space and to avoid confusion about which appendix to consultwhencheckingsourcereferences,thisbookhasonly ONE referenceappendix,the‘REFERENCEAPPENDIX’(abbreviated‘Ref‐
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Appx’).Othersubstantialreasonsforincluding‘everything’inone appendix,aswellasalltheiconsusedtosavespace,areexplained atthestartoftheReferenceAppendixonpage503. TheReferenceAppendixlargelyfollowstheconventionssetoutin AssignmentandDissertationTips(v.5, tagg.org/xpdfs/assdissv5.pdf) under‘References’and‘Specimenappendices’(p.68,ff.). Internetreferences TosavespaceintheReferencesAppendixandfootnotes,URLsare shortened,wherepossible,byreplacingtheinternetaddresspre‐ fixeshttp://,http://www.etc.withtheinternetdownloadicon .Dates ofaccesstointernetsitesarereducedtosix‐digitstringsinsquare brackets. For example: ‘ tagg.org [140704]’ means a visit to my homepage(http://www.tagg.org)on4thJuly2014. YouTubereferencesarereducedinlengthfrom42to13characters byusingtheunique11‐charactercodeappearingintheirabsolute URLaddress,precededbytheYouTubeicon .Forexample: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=msM28q6MyfY(42chars.) isshortenedtojust‘ msM28q6MyfY’(symbol+11chars).15Mostof theseYouTubereferencesareactivehyperlinks. Fontresources SeveralreadershaveaskedwhereIfindthemusicalandsymbol fontsusedinmywritings.Icompilethemmyselffromvarious sources.Youcandownloadthefontsforfree.Goto tagg.org/zmisc/ FontKeys.htmlandlookundersection1‘Fourusefulhome‐compiled fonts’.Thefontsinclude ¢ W ,etc., \? , %^M*JSUTOPYy1¹o2ÉpÈ3 Í q Ì etc.,L l H h N n, Á Ã Ö þ ÿ À Ä ß ä å ç æ ë õ ö Ë Õ Ü ã , ® b ; and manyothers.You’llalsofindaphoneticfont[ ]aswellas 15. WorthknowingaboutYouTubeuniquefileidentities:ifyoucopythe11char‐ acters(e.g.msM28q6MyfY)andpastethemintotheYouTubesearchbox,you willbetakentothatvideoandnoneother,andyouwillnotbetoldwhatelse ‘youmightenjoy’!
Tagg: Everyday Tonality II— Preface
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bothaCyrillic(Кириллица)andaGreekpolytonickeyboard(ὁ ῥυθμός,ἡἁρμονἰα,ἡᾠδή,ἡμελογρᾰφία)plusinstructionsfor producingsimplifiedChinese( 中 国 音 乐 通 ).Youcanalsotype Dvořák(right)ratherthan‘Dvorak’(wrong),leçon(decent)rather than‘lecon’(rude),Ångström(correct)insteadof‘Angstrom’,etc. Index Theindexincludespagereferencestoallpropernamesappearing inthebook.Thatmeansitincludesreferencetoauthors,perform‐ ers, composers, etc., as well as to titles of musical works, songs, tracks,albums,films,TVproductionsandsoonmentionedinthe maintext.Theindexalsoincludespagereferencestoalltopicsand toimportantconceptscoveredinthebook’spreface,chaptersand glossary.Footnotetextisalsoincludedintheindexingofthisbook.
Formalandpractical Cross‐referencingandorderoftopics Somepartsofthisbookare,asalreadymentioned,basedonency‐ clopedia articles. This means that insights, if any, readers might gainfromsomepartsofthisbookaremorelikelytoderivefrom conceptual rather than perceptual learning. That in its turn re‐ quiresquickaccesstothemeaningoftermsotherthanthoseunder currentdiscussion.That’sonereasonwhythetextofthisbookin‐ cludesfrequentcross‐references. Another reason is that it’s impossible to introduce all terms and ideasintherightorderforallreaders.Forexample,althoughro‐ man‐numeralchordshorthandmakesashortappearancealready onpages41and76,itisn’tfullyexplaineduntilpage224,inthe chapteronchords.Thatwillcausenoproblemsforthosewithaba‐ sic course in conventional harmony under their belts but others maywanttoreadpages224‐229andtoconsultTable13(p.226)be‐ foretheygoon.Similarly,readerswithnoknowledgeoflead‐sheet chordshorthand(E, G#m7, F#m7L5, B7etc.)shouldperhapsreadthe relevantsection(pp.233‐248)iftheyhavetroublefollowingthose symbolsearlierinthebook.
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Tagg: Everyday Tonality II — Preface
Moreover, since I’m unable to predict what readers may or may notknowinadvance,I’vegeneratedadetailedindexsothatthey canhopefullyfindatopicoratermtheywanttolookup.I’vealso includedaglossaryofspecialtermsandabbreviations(p.479,ff.).
Musicalsourcereferences Referencesystem Musicalsourcereferencesfollowthesamebasicsystemasbiblio‐ graphical source references. For example ‘Beatles (1967b)’ refers uniquelytopublishingdetails,locatedonpage508intheRefer‐ enceAppendix,fortheSergeantPepperalbum. Sometimesit’snecessarytorefertoawholestringoftunesinthe text.Forexample,insteadofwriting‘intuneslikeJingleBells(Pier‐ point,1857),LaMarseillaise(RougetdeLisle,n.d.)andSatisfaction (RollingStones,1965)’,Iwouldprobablychoosetolightenupthe text by just writing ‘in tunes like Jingle Bells, the Marseillaise and Satisfaction’.Insuchcasesthetitleofeachtuneincludedinthose stringswillbefound,listedinalphabeticalorder,intheReference Appendix, either complete or with at least cross‐reference to the completepublishingdetailselsewhereintheappendix.Complete publishingdetailsareprovidedsothatreaderswillknow,incases wheremorethanonerecordingexistsofthesamework,towhich versionIamreferring.SuchinformationisimportantwhenIpro‐ videtimingspinpointingmusicaleventswithinrecordedworks. Accessingandusingmusicalsources Onlinerecordings Themajorityofmusicalworksreferredtohaveatonetimeoran‐ other been published as recordings. It would in the 1990s have beenabsurdtoexpectreaderstohaveaccesstomorethanavery small proportion of those recordings. In 2014, however, it is in mostcasesaverysimplematterifyouknowwheretolook.Fear‐ ingprosecutionforinducementtoillegalacts,Ican’tbemorepre‐ ciseherethantosaythatthereareseveralpopularwebsiteswhere youcanhearthemajorityofrecordedworksIrefertointhisbook. Someofthosesitesarepay‐per‐downloadandlegal,somearelegal
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andfree,somearesemi‐legal,whileothersarefreeandtechnically illegal.However,thismuchIcansay:usingGoogletosearchfor |Police "Don’t Stand So Close To Me"|(withtheinvertedcommas)pro‐ duced32,200hyperlinks[2009‐06‐13],thefirsttwoofwhich,when clicked,tookmetoactualonlinerecordingsoftheoriginalissueof Don’tStandSoCloseToMe(Police,1980).Usingtheon‐screendig‐ italtimerprovidedbythesitehostingtherecording,Iwasableto pinpoint the song’s change from E$\Gm to D\A at 1:48. The wholeprocessofcheckingaprecisemusicaleventinjustoneofa million songs took me a few seconds. Of courseI must add that whileitisnotillegaltolistentomusicpostedontheinternet,down‐ loadingapopsongwithoutpaymentorpermissionmaywellbe.16 I’vecheckedmanyoftherecordingsreferredtointhebooktosee iftheycouldbeheardonline.SomeIdidn’tcheckatallbecauseI’m certainthey’dbeeasytofindbutothersIhadtoputonlinemyself. These others include: [1] short extracts from recordings under copyrightthatseemedtobeunavailableonline;[2]rudimentary audiorecordingsIproducedusingmyownequipmenttoillustrate particularpointsdiscussedinthetext.Allthese‘otherexamples’ canbeaccessedviamywebsiteat |tagg.org|.ClickAudio,bottom rightunder‘Audiovisual’,thenMusicexamplesin“EverydayTonal‐ ity”.Thenyou’llseea list oftherelevantaudioexamplesonmy site. Click on the relevant title to hear the example you need (mostlyinMP3format,someasMIDIfiles).Ifyouobjecttoanypost‐ ingongroundsofcopyrightownership,pleasecontactmeandI willremovetheoffendingitemorcontactmylawyerforadvice.17 Onlinenotation Inordertominimisehard‐copyproductioncosts,musicexamples generallyappearinpocket‐scoresizeonthepage.Theimagereso‐ lution of notation images is mostly 300 d.p.i. and the maximum 16. ThankstoBobClaridaforclarifyingthesesimplelegalpoints.Claridais mediaandcopyrightattorneyatReitler,Kailas&Rosenblatt(NewYork)and co‐authorofTenLittleTitleTunes(Tagg&Clarida,2003),. 17. Youcancontactmebyvisiting |tagg.organdclicking‘Contact’under‘Per‐ sonal’.MycopyrightlawyerisBobClarida(seefootnote16).
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Tagg: Everyday Tonality II — Preface
widthoftheprintedpageis10.3cm,allowingforanimagewidth of1220pixels.Somereadersmayfindtheminiature‐scoreformat problematic. If so, almost every notated music example in this bookcanbeviewedatordownloadedfull‐sizefrom tagg.org/pix/ MusExx/MusExxIdx.htm.Ifyou’rereadingthiselectronicallyyoucanof coursejustuseyourdevice’szoomfunction. Somenotatedmusicexamplesaremarkedcit.mem.,meaningthat theyarecitedfrom(my)memory.I’msorryifmymemorydoesnot correspondexactlywiththereader’smemoryofthesamemusic,or ifitdivergesfromwhateverisavailabletohearonline.Ionlyuse cit.mem.ifthereisnosingledefinitive,authoritativeororiginalre‐ cordingofthepiece,andifmyownmemorydoesnotdivergetoo radicallyfromtheessenceofhowothershearit.Insuchinstances I regard my own musical memory as an equally valid primary source as any other. In all other cases I give clear indication of sourcesusedforthecitation.
Formalia Tonaldenotation As mentioned briefly on page 20, the ‘everyday tonality’ of this bookcoversawiderrangeoftonalpracticesthanthosenormally consideredinstandardWesternmusictheory.Theproblemisthat terms and concepts developed to denote and explain the tonal workingsoftheeuroclassicalrepertoirecannotrealisticallybeex‐ pectedtodothesameforallothertypesoftonality.Toclaimother‐ wise would be like insisting that concepts developed to explain rulesoftheEnglishlanguageautomaticallyapplyto,say,Chinese orFinnish.Theobviousconsequenceforthisbookisthatconven‐ tionsoftonaldenotationcannotsimplybethoseofstandardWest‐ ernmusictheory.Itmeansthatsomeofthattheory’sterminology needsadaptationorredefinitionandthatsomeisbestavoided.It alsomeansthatIhavetointroducetermsandabbreviationsunfa‐ miliartothosebroughtuponSchenkerorRiemann.18Thissection doeslittlemorethansummarise,withminimaldiscussion,theba‐ sicconventionsoftonaldenotationandabbreviationinthisbook.
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Notenames To distinguish between, for example, E as the note E, E as lead‐ sheetchordshorthandforatertialmajortriadwiththenoteEasits root,andEasthekeyormodeinwhichthenoteEistonic,thefol‐ lowingtypographicalconventionsareused. Table1. Basictypographicalconventionsforpitch‐specificnoteandchordnames Denotationtype
Typography
Example
note
Symbol
lower-case sans-serif
isamajorthirdabove
lead‐sheetchord
upper-case sans-serif
…fromB7to …
key(Tonart)
upper-case serif
…isaV?IcadenceinE.
E
Forextraclarityanaturalsign(@)issometimesaddedafteranote name,e.g.‘both andb@’insteadofjust‘ and ’. Namesof OPEN STRINGSaregivenaccordingtoinstrumentalcon‐ vention,e.g.EADGBEforstandardguitartuningandDADGAD forDADGAD,g'dgbd'forbanjoopenGtuning. PleasenotethatTONICSOL‐FANOTENAMES(dohrémifasollati)are, accordingtoanglophoneconvention,alwaysrelativeormovable, e.g.‘Doh=B ’,‘Doh=E’,‘ré‐pentatonicmodeinG’.19Roman‐letter note names (e.g. a b$ b@ c# d e f# g) designate pitch in absolute (fixed)terms.Forfurtherexplanationseep.49,ff. Scaledegreeabbreviations Whendealingwithtonalitybothinsideandoutsidetheeuroclassi‐ cal sphere of tertial‐ionian, major‐minor music, comparison of tonal vocabulary is an absolute necessity. Such comparison in‐ volvesreasoningbasedontheplacementof SCALE DEGREESwithin theoctave,which,initsturn,requiresaconcisewayofreferring relativelytonotesandchords. AsshownintheleftcolumnofTable2(p.38),SCALEDEGREESOFIN‐ DIVIDUAL NOTES are expressed as simple arabic numerals topped 18. SeeauthoritativeWikipediaentriesfor‘HeinrichSchenker’and‘HugoRie‐ mann’.Seealsoftnt.24,p.40,forinfluentialSchenkerianFelixSalzer. 19. RÉisusedinpreferencetoREsoastoavoideventualmisreadingsinvolving thecommonprefixRE—repentant,re‐pentatonic,repetitive,re‐mode,remodel,etc.
38
Tagg: Everyday Tonality II — Preface
withacircumflexaccent,forexample‘ ’fordegreefiveinrelation toagiventonic(‘ ’),‘ ’foraminorthird(‘flatthree’),‘ ’fora major seventh (‘sharp seven’), etc. If preceded by the expression ‘scaledegree’,orifthecontextisotherwiseunambiguous,thescale degree[s]inquestionmaylackthecircumflex ‘Scaledegrees ’(e.g. inHijazC)isinotherwordsthesameas‘ ’. 20 Thelatterissimplyshorter. Sincescaledegrees2,4and5 )—themajorsecond,perfect fourthandperfectfifth—arethoseleastpronetoalterationinthe tonaltraditionscoveredinthisbook,theyareprecededbyanacci‐ dentalonlyiftherelevantscaledegreedivergesfromthosedefault values,forexample (‘flattwo’)forthephrygianminorsecond, (‘sharpfour’)forthelydianaugmentedfourth, (‘flatfive’)for thediminishedfifthoccuringintheotherwisebasicallyla‐penta‐ tonicbluesmode. The properties of scale degrees and vary much more fre‐ quentlythanthoseof and .That’swhy and arenor‐ mallyprecededbytheappositeaccidental— and forthe majorthird,sixthandseventh; and fortheminorthird, sixthandseventhrespectively.21 Table2. Scaledegreeabbreviationswithcande[@]astonic(Â).22 SCALEDEGREE nº
Â=c
Â=e
notename
Scale degree
TERTIALCOMMONTRIAD
Â=c nº
Â=e
major
Â=c nº
Â=e
minor
as spoken
d$ d@
f@ f#
$II II
D$ D
F F#
$ii ii
C#m Dm
Fm F#m
‘flat two’ ‘two’
e$ e@
g@ g#
$III III
E$ E
G G#
$iii iii
E$m Em
Gm G#m
‘flat three’ ‘three’
f f#
a a#
IV #IV
F F#
A B$
iv #iv
Fm F#m
Am B$m
‘four’ ‘sharp four’
20. Fontsusedherearedownloadableat tagg.org/zmisc/FontKeys.html[140308]. 21. Ofcourse,the$or#doesnotmean$or#innotation.$Ê inEphrygianis just asitis inAphrygian,d@inC#phrygian,g$inFphrygian,etc.
39
Tagg: Everyday Tonality II— Preface
SCALEDEGREE
Scale degree
TERTIALCOMMONTRIAD
g$ g@
b$ b@
$V V
G$ G
B$ B
$iv v
F#m Gm
B$m Bm
‘flat five’ ‘five’
a$ a@
c@ c#
$VI VI
A$ A
C C#
$vi vi
A$m Am
Cm C#m
‘flat six’ ‘[sharp] six’
b$ b@
d@ d#
$VII VII
B$ B
D D#
$vii vii
B$m Bm
Dm ‘flat seven’ D#m ‘sharp seven’
Therareaugmentedthird(orsixth)isprecededby‘ ’andfollowed by‘ ’.Forexample,an (not )inFwouldbe‘ ’,thusallow‐ ingfordistinctionbetween ( inF)and ( inlydianF).‘Half‐flat’scaledegreesareindicated by ‘§’, as in ‘neutral’ renderings of the blues third (§Î), or as in maqamRast(ascending § § § ). SCALE STEPS(theintervals between adjacent notes inamode) are expressedintones:‘¼’meansaquarter‐tone,‘½’asemitone,‘¾’ threequartersofatone,‘1’awholetone(literally1tone),and‘1½’ one‐and‐a‐halftonesorthreesemitones(anaugmentedsecondor minorthird).Theaccidental‘§’indicatesapitch¼‐tonebelowthe noteitimmediatelyprecedes.23 22. Pleasenotethatmanyofthetertialcommontriadsinthistablecontainnotes outsidetheeuroclassicalkeysofCandEmajorandminor,e.g.$II contains twonotesforeigntotheionianor‘majorkey’( ),and$iicontainstwofor‐ eigntotheeuroclassical‘minorkey’( ).Ontheotherhand,$IIis thefullycompatiblecommontriadonÊinthephrygianandHijazmodes.The ionianandionianisedaeolianmodesareinotherwordsnottreatedasdefault exceptinsectionsofthisbookcoveringthosetonalpracticesinparticular. 23. Theuseof½,1,1½,etc.replacesthreeotherconventions:[1]‘T’fortone,‘S’ forsemitone;[2]‘W’forwholetoneand‘H’forhalftone;[3]‘1’forsemitone, ‘2’forawholetoneand‘3’forthreesemitones.Althoughthelatterisnot anglocentriclikealternatives[1]and[2],itis,Ithink,counterintuitiveto equateahalf‐tone(semitone,i.e.½,50%)withtheinteger1andawhole‐tone(1 tone)with2(×2,200%of1).‘½’isafterallavailableonmostcomputerkey‐ boards;itshexadecimalUnicodevalueisBD(U+00bd),itsASCIIvalue171. Thekeyboardlayout‘USInternational’isavailableonalloperatingsystems.If youhaveinstalledandselectedit,youcantype‘½’inWindowsbypressing Right‐Alt‐7.YoucancustomisehowyoudoitonaMac:openatextfile,click Edit>SpecialCharactersandselect‘½’.
40
Tagg: Everyday Tonality II — Preface
Octavedesignationandregister WhenreferringtoREGISTERitissometimesnecessarytoindicatein which octave notes are pitched. In such cases I’ve used the MIDI conventionofnumberingoctavesfroma0atthebottomofan88‐ notepianokeyboardtocwatitstopend(seep.72,ff.). Scaledegreechordshorthand SCALEDEGREECHORDSHORTHAND(romannumerals)followsprinci‐ plessimilartothoseexplainedabove,withafewexceptions.Now, aswillbecomeevidentlaterinthisbook,conceptslike‘dominant’, ‘subdominant’, and ‘perfect cadence’, not to mention ‘functional harmony’,areirrelevanttomuchofwhatmostpeoplehearona dailybasis.That’swhySalzer’seuroclassicallyfocussedStructural Hearing(1952)isabsentfromthisbook.Readerswillnothaveto endure ‘Sp’, ‘Dp’ or ‘DDY9’!24 Nevertheless, the roman‐numeral denotationofchordsisusedextensively(Table2,p.38;§3,below).
Chords Three systems are used for the concise denotation of chords: [1] lead‐sheet shorthand,[2]quartalchorddesignationand[3] theroman numeralsystem. 1.Lead‐sheetchordshorthand LEAD‐SHEET CHORD SHORTHAND for tertial harmony (A, Bm7$5, E$m^9, etc.) is explained in Chapter 7 and presented in tabular formonpages236‐237.Allchordsymbolrootnamesareinsans‐ serifcapitalswhilenamesofkeys(tonalité,Tonart)are,asshownin Table 1 (p. 37), in upper‐case serif, for example, ‘Mozart’s Sym‐ 24. FelixSalzerislargelyresponsibleforestablishingtheteachingsofAustrian musicologistHeinrichSchenker(d.1935)intheUSAwhereitisstillanobliga‐ torypartof‘musictheory’intheacademy.Itcanbeusefulforunderstanding structuralnarrativeinaMozartsymphonybutisfranklyuselessifyouwant toknowhowthetonalitiesofrebetikoorredneckrock(andcountlessother non‐euroclassicalidioms)work.‘Sp’and‘Dp’areabbreviationsof‘Subdomi‐ nant’and‘DominantParallel’respectively(e.g.DmasSpandEmasDpinC). ‘DDY9’isagarbledversionofthe‘doubledominant’minorninthchordwith itsrootnotedeleted,forexample,inC,thenotesd f# a c e$(withoutthed),i.e. abog‐standardF#Jchord!
Tagg: Everyday Tonality II— Preface
41
phonynº41isinC’;‘thevocallineofSteeleyeSpan’s1970record‐ ing of The Lowlands Of Holland is in la‐hexatonic C Or is it ré‐ pentatonicC ?withan“extra” ?’(ex.84,p.161). 2.Quartalchorddesignationsymbols QUARTAL CHORD DESIGNATION symbols (CÁ, F4, B$2, etc.) are ex‐ plainedseparatelyinChapter10(p.298,ff;p.306,ff.).
3.Roman‐numeralchordshorthand Roman‐numeralchordshorthand(I, iiéíÚ, $III5, IVå, Vä, V7, $VI, etc.)referstochordsrelatively.Theromannumeralsdesignate,in anykeyormode,thescaledegreeonwhichthebasicchordisbuilt (seeTable2,p.38)andthesuperscriptedarabicnumeralsindicate alterationstothatbasicchord.ThissystemisexplainedinChapter 7 (pp. 224‐229) and set out in Table 13 (p. 227). A ‘HEWN-INSTONE’fontisusedtomaketheserelativechordsymbolsalittle easiertospotinthetext,butI’lladmitthere’snotmuchvisualdif‐ ferencebetween‘I’(me)and‘I’(romannº1). Diligentreaderswillhavedoubtlessnoticedaglaring INCONSIST‐ ENCYintheabbreviationconventionsdescribedabove.Theincon‐ sistencyisthatwhile and denoteminorand majorscaledegreesrespectively,onlythetriadsbasedontheminor third, sixth and seventh are preceded by an accidental — $III, $VI, $VII, $iii, $vi, $vii—,notthosebasedonthemajorthird,sixthand seventh(III, iii, VI, vi,etc.).IagreewithEsaLilja25thatitwould belogicaltouse,forexample,#iiiand#vitoindicateminortriads on and (e.g.EmandAminCionian).Ihavenoobjectionsat alltosuchaconvention.However,Ihaveoptednottouseithere fortworeasons. 25. Respondingtomyquestion‘whatshouldwedoaboutthedifferences betweenhowweabbreviatescaledegreesandscale‐degree‐basedchords?’, EsaLilja,authorofTheoryandAnalysisofClassicHeavyMetalHarmony(2009), expressedthelogicalopinionthatifwedistinguishbetween and ,then wemustalsodistinguishbetween$III/$iiiand#III/#iii.Otherwise,he wrote,studentswillbecomeconfused(emailcorrespondence,June2014).
42
Tagg: Everyday Tonality II — Preface
[1]I’mnottheonly‘musicologistofthepopular’tohaveseencom‐ monchordsequenceswritten‘I vi ii V’,‘I III vi…’,etc.somany times that reading ‘I #vi ii V’, ‘I #III #vi …’ , etc. instead just looksweird.Iadmitthat’snotreallyavalidreason! [2]InWesternmusictheory,scale‐degreeabbreviationislesscom‐ monthantheroman‐numeraldesignationoftriads.Adjustingthe arab numerals to distinguish between, say, and constitutes thereforelessofachallengetoconventionalmusictheorythanin‐ troducinga‘#’infrontofchordsonthemajorthird,sixthorsev‐ enth. Although it would be pointless to argue with the sort of notationallyfixatedconservativemusictheoristwhoobjectsto designatingf@inphrygianEbecausethere’sno‘$’inthescore(!),26 there’snopointinannoyingindividualswantingtobreakoutof themouldbutwhomightbelesswillingtodosoifsubjectedto newconventionsthataremoreamatterofformalconsistencythan oftonalsubstance.Ithinkthat‘IIIv.#III’isonesuchmatter,even ifIagreeit’smorelogicaltouse‘#III’and‘#iii’todesignatetriads onscaledegreemajorthree,especiallygiventhewidespreaduseof ‘$III’andthedistinctionmadeinthisbookbetweenscaledegrees (minorthird)and (majorthird). Onewayofavoidingtheproblemofaccidentalsinfrontofroman‐ numeralchordabbreviationsistobemode‐specificandtoaban‐ donlower‐casenumeralsaltogether.It’sinthiswaythat,forexam‐ pleinC,‘ion.I III IV V’wouldmeanC Em F G,whereas‘aeol.I III IV V’wouldmeanCm E$ Fm Gm.Thispracticeisproblematicfor threemainreasons.[1]Modenameabbreviations(ion.,dor.,phryg., etc.)takemorespacethanasimple‘$’or‘#’.[2]Temporarychanges ofmodedesignationbecomenecessarytoindicatechordscontain‐ ingnotesforeigntothestatedmode,forexampleinaPicardythird orinthechordstoTheHouseOfTheRisingSun(Animals,1964a), wherethei$III IV $VIofthesong’sAm C D Fprogressionwould havetobe‘dor.I III IVaeol.VI’.[3]It’smucheasiertoidentify whattypeofthirdthechordcontainsifbothupper‐andlower‐case numeralsareused. 26. Unfortunatelythisisnojoke,asDiegoGarciaPeinazoexplained(140630), recountingexperienceswithcertainmusictheoryteachers(ftnt.21,p.38).
Tagg: Everyday Tonality II— Preface
43
TheupshotofthisdiscussionisthatI’vedecidedtousetheroman numeralsystemasshowninTables2(p.38)and13(p.227).This meansthatcommontriadsbasedonscaledegreesinallmodesex‐ cept the ionian involve at least one roman‐numeral symbol pre‐ ceded by an accidental, usually ‘$’. That’s because the roman numberingoftertialtriadscomesfromthetheoryofeuroclassical musicwhosedefaultmodeistheionian.Consequently,theroman numbering of triads in other modes has to indicate divergence fromthationianstandard.‘III’,forexample,alwaysmeansama‐ jortriadon#Î,themajor‐thirdscaledegreeinrelationtothetonic (anEmajortriadinC,aC#majortriadinA,forexample),whereas ‘$III’designatesamajortriadon$ΗanE$majortriadinC,aC majortriadinA,etc.27 Musicexamples(notated) Thisbookcontainshundredsofnotatedmusicexamplesandfig‐ urescontainingmusicalnotation.Asexplainedearlier,manymu‐ sicexamplescitedasnotationinthisbookcanalsobebothheard asaudioandviewedinbetterresolutiononline(seep.34). I’m not a guitarist. Sometimes I transcribe as a typical keyboard player.Iapologiseifmyvoicingsofguitarchordsarewrong.How‐ ever,DiegoGarcíaPeinazo,visitingdoctoralstudentandguitarist fromOviedo/Córdoba,hasbeenofgreathelpintranscribingsev‐ eralguitar‐basedexamples. 27. Euroclassicalmusictheory’spreoccupationwithrtheionianishistorically understandablebutitis,inmusic‐theoreticalterms,hardlylogical.Takingthe sevenwhitenotesonapianokeyboard( )andre‐arrangingthemin clockwiseorderroundthecircleoffifths( ),it’sclearthatthetwo extremesareseparatedinsidetheoctavebyatritone( )and,moreimpor‐ tantly,that issituatednexttotheleft‐handextreme(f c g d a e b),notinthe centralpositionoccupiedby .WiththedorianD‐modeas defaultfortheroman‐numeralsystemtherewouldhavebeenthreemodes sharpwards(aeolian,phrygian,locrian)andthreeflatwards(mixolydian, ionian,lydian);andtheassignmentofappositeaccidentalswouldhavebeen moreequitable.Itwouldalsohavebeeninlinewithnotionsofmodusprotus plagalisandauthenticus.Thatputstheionianinaninterestinghistoricalper‐ spective.Italsoexplainswhythey’resomany sandsofew sinfrontof roman‐numeralchorddesignations.
44
Tagg: Everyday Tonality II — Preface
Drumkitpartsarenotincludedinthisbookabouttonality. 8vaand15mabassa The TENOR CLEF, familiar to guitarists, is a G Fig.1. 8vabassa clef ( ) with an ‘8’ underneath. It’s used fre‐ quently in music examples covering the mid register.Theideaistosavespace,tocutdown onlegerlinesandtoavoidswitchingbetween GandFclefs.Pleaselookforthelittle‘8’(‘8’= 8vabassa=octavebelow):thetwonotesshowninFigure1(p.44) soundatexactlythesamepitch.28Onafewoccasions‘15mabassa’is usedtoindicatethatthenotessoundtwooctavesbelowtheirno‐ tatedpitch. Sequences,intervalsandsections Hyphens(‐),arrows(?),shuttles(\)andloops({}) Notenamesorchorddesignationsoccurringinsequenceareusu‐ allyseparatedbyHYPHENSorbyasimplespace(e.g.‘ ’or‘ ’;‘C Am F G’or‘D-Bm-G-A’;‘I vi ii V’or‘I-vi-IV-V’). To highlight the unidirectional aspect of TONAL PROGRESSIONS, such changes are marked with an arrow pointing right, e.g. ‘ii?V?I’, ‘Gm7?C7?F’.Chordshuttles(oscillationbetweentwochords)arein‐ dicated by a double‐headed arrow, e.g. ‘i\IV’, ‘Gm7\C’. Chord loops(shortrepeatedsequencesofusuallythreeorfourchords)are delimitedbyarrowsturningthrough180°beforeandaftertherel‐ evantsequence,e.g.‘{I-vi-IV-V}’,‘ ’. DiagonalarrowsareusedtohighlightPITCHDIRECTION,e.g.thede‐ scendingcharacterofanAndalusiancadenceiv>$III>$II>I.They arealsousedtodistinguishbetweenintervallicleapslikegc#,orbetweenc@>e(afalling )andcÎinIV‐I)andtheotherascending(#êfrequency oftonic(equal temperament) 5.×>frequency oftonic(just temperament) 4.Frequency ratiototonic
0 1 1
3.Scaledegree shorthand
2.Semitones abovedoh 1.Notename (doh=c) c c# d$
7.Intervalname inrelation tolowertonic (c)
8. Scaledegreenames (euroclassical: POPULAR)
prime(unison) [raisedprime] minor2nd orsemitone major2ndor wholetone augmented2nd minor3rd major3rd
tonic:ONE ‐ flatsupertonic FLATTWO supertonic:
1:1 25:24 25:24
1 1.042 1.042
1 1.060 1.060
9:8
1.125
1.123
6:5 6:5 5:4
1.2 1.2 1.25
1.189 1.189 1.260
#
4:3 45:32
1.333 1.406
1.335 1.414
6 7 8 8
$6
45:32 3:2 8:5 8:5
1.406 1.5 1.6 1.6
1.414 1.498 1.587 1.587
perfect4th augmented4th ortritoneor diminished5th perfect5th augmented5th minor6th
a
9
6
5:3
1.667
1.682
major6th
[a#] b$ b
10 10 11
#6 9:5 $7 9:5 7 15:8
1.8 1.8 1.875
1.782 1.782 1.888
augmented6th minor7th major7th
c
12
8
2
2
(perfect)octave
#
2:1
Fig.10.Oneoctave
TWO SHARPTWO FLATTHREE mediant:THREEor MAJORTHREE subdominant:FOUR [raisedsubdominant] SHARPFOUR FLATFIVE dominant:FIVE SHARPFIVE flatsubmediant: FLATSIX submediant:SIXor MAJORSIX ‐ subtonic:FLATSEVEN leadingnote: SHARPSEVEN tonic:EIGHT
Table4presentsalltwelvetonesintheWest‐ ernchromaticscale.Column1givesthenote namesofthosetwelvepitchesinanascending scalewithc@asits tonic (see alsoFig.10 ). Column 2 in Table 4 presents the number of semitonesseparatingeachnotefromthelower tonic (c), and column 3 the heptatonic scale‐ degreeshorthandforeachofthetwelvenotes
Tagg: Everyday Tonality II — 2: Tuning, octave, interval
75
( =‘flattwo’, =‘sharpfour’,etc.).Column4showsthepitch frequencyratioinjusttemperament(p. 78,ff.)betweeneachnote andthelowertonic,whilecolumns5and6showthesamepitch differencesasmultiplesofthetonic’sfundamentalfrequency,us‐ ingjustandequaltemperamentrespectively.5Column7presents themostwidelyusedintervalnamesinWesternmusictheory.Fi‐ nally,column8liststwotypesofscaledegreedesignation:[1]in italics,thoseusedintheoriesofeuroclassicalharmony;and[2],in smallcapitals,thepopularpracticeusedbyanglophonemusicians whenpronouncingthescale‐degreesymbolsincolumn2.6Thedif‐ ferencebetweenthelabelsincolumns7andthoseinitalicsincol‐ umn8canbeexplainedasfollows. Althoughtheintervalnamesincolumn7ofTable4areallgivenin relationtothelowertonic(c@),theycaninfactbeappliedinrela‐ tiontoanynote.Forexample,f@islocated,asshowninTable4,a perfectfourth(5semitonesorguitarfrets)abovec,butitisalsoa perfectfourthbelowb$andaperfectfifth(7semitones)belowc,as wellasasemitoneorminorsecond(orasingleguitarfret)abovee; fisalsoamajorthird(4semitones)aboved$,amajorsixth(9semi‐ tones)belowd,andamajorsecondorwholetonebelowg,aswell asaminorseventh(10semitones)aboveg. Thetermsinitalicsincolumn8ofTable4,ontheotherhand,are usedalmostexclusivelyaboutmusicintheeuroclassicaltradition andcanonlybeappliedinrelationtotherelevantkeynoteortonicof musicinthattradition.7Forexample,althoughsixdifferentrising perfectfifthsexistwithinthetonalvocabularyofaCmajorscale (fbinC).
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Tagg: Everyday Tonality II — 2. Tuning, octave, interval
chordsbasedonthatsamescaledegree(G, G7,etc.inthekeyofC), can be called dominant. By the same token, the note f and tertial chordsbasedonf(F, F7, Fm,etc.)canbecalleddominantonlyinthe keyofB$,mediantonlyinthekeyofD$,submediantonlyinA$,su‐ pertoniconlyinE$,leadingnoteonlyinG$,andsubdominantonlyin C. Although useful in the analysis of musics following the tonal habits of euroclassical music and most types of jazz, terms like dominant and subdominant are of little or no relevance to music basedonothertonalprinciples.9Forexample,thecommonthree‐ chord mixolydian loop heard throughout Sweet Home Alabama ({D-C-G}inD)andrepeatedattheendofHeyJude({G-F-C}in G) is referred to as I-$VII-IV (’one, flat seven, four’), not ‘tonic, subtonic,subdominant’.10Andthat’snotbecausethefirstdesigna‐ tionofthesamesequenceismoreconcise:it’sbecausethechordon IV(theGinD,theCinG)justdoesn’tworklikeaeuroclassicalsub‐ dominantandbecausethesequenceincludesnodominant(V)to whichachordonthefourthdegree(IV)canreasonablybe‘sub’.11 Anotherethnocentricproblemwithcolumn8inTable5(p.78)con‐ cernsthescale’sseventhdegree:the‘leadingnote’.It’saproblem bestexplainedbyexample. Ex.1. Subtonicorleadingnote?(a)Handel:hymntuneAntioch(‘JoyToThe World’);(b)TheFoggyDew(Irishtrad.).
Example 1 includes seven sevenths of which only one is strictly speakingaleadingnote.Example1acontainstwosevenths,both major or ‘sharp sevens’ ( ), the first one descending from the tonic,theother[nº2]risingbackuptothetonic.Thefivesevenths 9. SeeChapter9,p.277,ff. 10. LynyrdSkynyrd(1974),Beatles(1968b).Formoreexamplesofthatmixoly‐ dianchordloop,seeTable.35,p.435. 11. Fornon‐ionianharmony,seep.277,ff.Forroman‐numeralchords,seep.224.
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77
inexample1bareallminoror‘flatsevens’( ),twoofthem[4,5] descending from the tonic, two [3, 6] ascending to the tonic and one[7]goinginbothdirections.Sowhichofthesevenseventhsis definitelyaleadingnote?Well,theseventhdegreeintheeuroclas‐ sical major, ascending minor and harmonic minor scales (see p. 95,ff.)iscalledleadingnotebecauseinthosemodesit’sthemajor seventh ( , ‘sharp seven’) which is supposed to lead to the tonic ( )asemitoneabove,(e.g.b@?cinC,f#?ginG).Thatmeansthe onlyunequivocalleadingnoteinexample1isnumber2. LEADINGNOTEcanalsodesignateanytonethatleadsbyasinglesemi‐ tonestep,ascendingordescending,toasubsequentnoteheardasconso‐ nant,aswithanf@,eitherinaG7chorddescendingonesemitoneto e@inaCmajortonictriad( > ,seep.256,ff.),orlikethesecond scaledegreeinEphrygiandescendingtoitstonic( > ,seepp.126 and443).12Now,inconventionalmusictheoryleadingnotetendsto meanthenotesituatedonesemitonebelowthetonicandwhichis assumedtoleaduptothatkeynote( < = ),evenifitcanalsode‐ scendfromit.Oneobviousproblemwiththisterminologyisthat, asexample1bsuggests,widelydisseminatedtypesofpopularmu‐ sicoftenusetheminorseventh( ,thesubtonic,‘flatseven’),which islocatednotasemitonebutawholetonebelowthetonicandjust aslikelytodescendtothesixthorfifthasascendtothetonic,orar‐ rivefromordeparttootherscaledegrees.And,asthefirstseventh inexample1ashows,notevenamajorseventhnecesarilyleadsto thetonic.Inshort,thetermleadingnoteismisleadingifitdesignates thesortofminorseventhsshowninexample1bbecausenoneof themhavetoleadtoanyotherplaceinparticular.Itisfortheserea‐ sons advisable, when referring in relative terms to the seventh scaledegree,tousethetermsubtonicforflatsevensandtorestrict themeaningofleadingnotetoascaledegreethatliterallyleadsby asemitone(orless)uptoitstonic.
12. SeealsoTheOtherLeadingNote(Moore,2013).
78
Tagg: Everyday Tonality II — 2. Tuning, octave, interval
Equal‐tonetuning Themostwidelyacceptedintra‐octavetuningsystemformusicin theurbanWestisequaltemperamentorequal‐tonetuning.Itdivides theoctaveintotwelveequalintervals(semitones)andhasbeenin use since the late eighteenth century. It was developed to solve problems caused by discrepancies between certain intervals as constituent parts of the octave and the same intervals in their ‘pure’form.13 Table5. Intra‐octaveintervalsinjustandequaltuning,withscaledegrees 1‐8andnotenamesinC
9:5 1.8
Octave/Tonic
5:3 1.667
Major7th
8:5 1.6
Minor7th
3:2 1.5
Major6th
Perfect5th
4:3 45:32 1.333 1.406
Minor6th
Augm.4th/ Dimin.5th
5:4 1.25
Perfect4th
1
6:5 1.2
Major3rd
1:1 25:24 9:8 1 1.042 1.125
Minor3rd
Equal
Major2nd
Just
Minor2nd
Tuning typeñ
Prime/Tonic
? Interval
15:8 2:1 1.875 2
1.060 1.123 1.189 1.260 1.335 1.414 1.498 1.587 1.682 1.782 1.888
2
Degree inC
AsshowninFigure11( ),thetopnoteofthree Fig.11.g#≠a$ stackedpuremajorthirds,eachatthefrequency ratio5:4abovethepreviousone,isoutoftuneat theoctavewiththebottomnote.Thatmeansthe atthetopofthepileofthethreemajorthirds , , is,injustintonation,onefifthof atone(40¢)lowerthantheoctaveabovetheini‐ tiala$.Similarly,thetop inthefourstacked natural minor thirds14 g#-b-d-f-a$ is more than a quarter‐tone (>50¢) lower than the octave above the initial g#. These natural acoustic discrepancies posed particular problems for keyboard playersneedingtoproduce,say,both (asinanEmajortriad) and (asinanFminortriad)inthesamepiece:oneortheother 13. ‘Pure’meansinthiscontexttheacousticallyunadjustedsimplefrequency ratiosofintervalsusedinjustintonation(seeTable5). 14. ‘Pure’minorthirdsareintervalsseparatedbyafrequencyratioof6:5(=×1.2).
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wouldbeseriouslyoutoftune.15Equaltemperamenttackledthe problem by slightly detuning eleven of the octave’s constituent semitonessothattheintervalbetweeneachofthembecameiden‐ tical. As Table 5 shows, the equal‐temperament perfect fourths (e.g. )andfifths( )havealmostthesamevaluesastheirjust‐ toneequivalents.Thirds,sixthsandsevenths,ontheotherhand, haveclearlybeentheobjectofmoresignificantdoctoring. Equal‐tonetuningisessentialinmanytypesofWesternmusic,in‐ cludingclassical,twelve‐tone,parloursong,marches,waltzes,pol‐ kas,mazurkas,evergreens,mosttypesofjazz,bossanova,choro, symphonicfilmscores,etc.,etc.Itis,however,unnecessaryinmu‐ sicrequiringnoenharmonicalignment(betweend#ande$, g#and a$etc.)forpurposesofmodulationorharmoniccolour.Moreover, equaltemperamentiseitherunnecessaryorinappropriatein,for example, most types of blues, bluegrass, blues‐based rock, folk rock, not to mention the traditional musics of Africa, the Arab world,theBalkans,theBritishIsles,theIndiansubcontinent,Scan‐ dinaviaetc.,i.e.inanymusicwhosetonalityisnon‐euroclassical and/ordrone‐based.16Onereasonfortherelativeincompatibility of such music with equal‐tone tuning may be the use of drone notestoproduceanoverallsoundthatisrichinnaturalovertones and thereby inconsistent with equal‐temperament intervals. An‐ other reason might be the centrality of each interval’s expressive characterinrelationtoapermanenttonic,asintherāgatraditions ofIndiawhoseaestheticsalsooftenrequiremicrotonalpitchdis‐ tinctions.Artificiallyadjustingintervalsbyasmuchasaquarter‐ tone,asinequal‐tonetuning,isincompatiblewiththeprinciplesof suchmusic. Another important consideration is, as shown in Table 6 (p. 80), thepitchlocationofscaledegreesincompatiblewiththeWestern assumptionthatsemitonesarethesmallestpossibleintervals. 15. Ifyou’reinCmajorandneedtomakefirstaperfectcadenceintherelative minor(E7-Am)andlateranalteredplagalcadenceinC(Fm-C),youwon’twant yourg#anda$tobeoutoftunebyaquartertone.The{G-B-C-Cm}loopin Creep(Radiohead,1992)wouldalsosufferifplayedinjusttuning(d#ande$). 16. Seep.211,ff.and‘Opentuninganddrones’(p.344,ff.).
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Table6. Intra‐octaveintervalpitchesforfiveheptatonicmodes
Columns1and9inTable6show,inascendingorder,thescalede‐ grees (including accidentals, where appropriate) of a heptatonic octave.17Column2liststhetwelvesemitonesinanoctaveascend‐ inginequal‐tonetuningfromantoan+1,specifyingapitchdiffer‐ enceof100centsbetweeneachsemitonestep.Column8provides 17. Seepp.37‐39,ff.forexplanationofscale‐degreeshorthand(§=¼‐toneflat).
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anincrementallistingincentsofeachsemitonestepfromtheini‐ tialan(‘0’=nointerval)toan+1,located1200¢,twelvesemitonesor oneoctavehigher.Pleasenotethatcolumns1and2areincomplete horizontalalignmentwithcolumns8and9. Columns3‐7show,incents,thepitchdifferencebetweeneachof thesevenscaledegreesinfivedifferentmodes.Thepitchlocation ofscaledegreesintheionianandaeolianmodes(columns3and5) alignentirelywiththeWesternequal‐tonesemitonepitchesgiven incolumns2(100¢)and8(multiplesof100¢),asdothoseofRast (column 4), except for the latter’s two 150¢ (¾‐tone) steps § and § . In a similar way, Bayati (col. 6) resembles the aeolian mode(col.5),exceptforthefour¾‐tonesteps(150¢) ‐§ ,§ §âand§ .18TheJavanesePelogscale(col.7)divergesevenmore radicallyfromWesternequal‐tonetuning:neitherits nor align withthoseoftheothermodesinthetable.19Thepointisthatin manytypesoftonalityscaledegreepitchesdonotfitintothesim‐ pletwelve‐semitonegridofWesternintra‐octavetuningsystems. Moreover,ashighlightedbythethickerhorizontallinesabovethe startandendofeachscaledegreeinTable6andbythevarying numberofcentsgivenfortheintervalbetweenscaledegrees,pitch placementofanoctave’sconstituenttonescanvaryradicallyfrom onemodetoanother. Withinthegeneralframeworkofjustintonationdiscussedearlier, awidevarietyofintra‐octavetuningsareusedindifferentmusic traditions.Despiteafewexceptions,suchasthePelogandSlendro systemsofJava,manyintra‐octavetuningsinclude,assuggested bythethickhorizontallineabove and inTable6,thenatural fourth(4:3),andmostincludethenaturalfifth(3:2).20Atthesame time,ArabandIndianmusictheoriesdividetheoctaveinto16and 22 unequal steps respectively, reflecting intra‐octave tuning con‐ ventionsthatdiffermarkedlyfromthoseoftheurbanWest.21 18. Bayati§âand§êaresometimesgivenas$âand$ê(cf.Fig.19,p.119). 19. Forionianandaeolian,seepp.91‐96,99,103‐116;forRastandBayati,seepp. 119‐121;forPelogandSlendro,seeMalm(1977:45‐47). 20. SeealsoTable4,p.74.
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TheWesternadjustmentofnaturalintervalsintothetwelveequal intervalsshowninTables4,5and6(pp.74,78,80)hasonlybeenin operationforacoupleofcenturiesinurbanEuropeandAmerica, butithasduringthatshortperiodmanagedtoreplacemanyear‐ liervernaculartuningpatternsintheWesternworld,patternsthat can be heard today in archival recordings from what were rela‐ tively isolated areas like the Outer Hebrides or the Appalachian backwoods.22It’simpossibletopredictiftheglobalspreadofAn‐ glo‐North‐Americanmusicduringthelatterhalfofthetwentieth century, together with the equal‐tone tuning of piano, organ, ac‐ cordionandsynthesiserkeyboards—plustheinclusionofgeneral MIDIinpersonalcomputers,plustheoverwhelminguseofequal‐ tonetuningingloballydisseminatedfilmandgamesmusic—,will eventuallybringaboutthedemiseofothertuningsystems.Evenif thatweretohappen,tonaldiversitydoesnot,thankfully,depend solelyonavarietyofintra‐octavetuningsystemstosurviveand flourish.Thevastvarietyofmodesusedonadailybasisindiffer‐ entpartsoftheworldisonehealthysymptomoftonaldiversity;23 anotheristuninginthesecondsenseofthewordpresentedatthe startofthischapter.
21. NeutralisoftenusedintheWesttoqualifypitchesbetween‘major’and ‘minor’thirds,sixthsandsevenths.Itisaeurocentrictermimplyingthat thosepitchesareheardaccordingtothatsameintervallicgridatalltimesin allcultures.Thehistoricalphenomenonofmusicafictasuggeststhatnoteven Europeanshavealwaysperceivedthirds,sixthsandseventhsinthesameway. Anotherethnocentricnotionisthatotherpeoplessingorplay‘inthecracks betweenthenotes’(ofamodernWesternpianokeyboard,ofcourse).For muchmoreonmodesandscales,seeChapters3and4.FormaqamatRastand Bayati,seepp.119‐121. 22. See,forexample,‘WaulkingSong’onMusiqueCeltiquedesÎlesHébrides(1970) and‘TheLostSoul’onTheDocWatsonFamily(Watson1963/1990) 23. See,forexample,thenineteenmodeswithwhichGreekpopularmusicians shouldideallybefamiliar(ΛαϊκοιΔρόμοι,p.119).
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Instrument‐specifictuning Fig.12.NeanderthalboneflutefromDivjeBabe(Slovenia)
TheholesinthiscelebratedNeanderthalboneflutewouldhaveal‐ loweditsuser,some60,000yearsago,toproducethepitchesofa an anhemitonic pentatonic scale.24 Since then, a vast number of otherwindinstrumentshavebeenmadeusingvariousmaterials, with holes, mouthpieces, reeds, keys, valves, tube lengths, bell shapesandboresizesconstructedandarrangedinaninfinitevari‐ etyofways.Allthesefactorsaffectthesoundofeachinstrument anddetermineitstonalvocabulary,i.e.itsrangeandplacementof possiblepitchesaswellastheirintervallicrelationtoeachother. Forexample,ashakuhachiflutedoesn’tsounddistinctly‘shakuh‐ achi’(perhaps‘traditionalJapanese’toWesternears)justbecause ofitstimbre,howeverimportantthatmaybe.Thefactthatitsfive holesalsocorrespondtothefivenotesofastandardanhemitonic pentatonicscaleandthattonalcomplexitycanbeincreasedbyex‐ ploitingtheconsiderableamountofpitchbendavailableforeach notearefactorsdeterminingitstonalidentity.UsingmyMIDIsoft‐ ware to assign a rapid run of staccato chromaticism to the best shakuhachi sample bank in the world will not make that lick soundlikeashakuhachianymorethan128quantisedkickdrum semiquaversinarowcaneversoundlikearealliverockdrummer. Inshort,thephysicalconstructionofawindinstrumentaffectsthe tonalaswellastimbralidentityoftheinstrumentandofthemusi‐ calculturetowhichitisassumedtobelong. Mostwindinstrumentsaremonophonicandplayersneed,likevo‐ calists, to ensure the notes they produce respect the basic pitch rulesofthemusicalcultureinwhichtheyareused.Amonophonic windinstrumentplayermustalso,whenpartofanensemble,ad‐ just to a common reference pitch like =440. Polyphonic instru‐ 24. PentatonicmodesaredealtwithinChapter3(p.157,ff.).
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ments (actual or potential) require further internal tuning.Piano and pipe organ tuning is usually carried out by specialists but portablestringinstrumentsaretunedbytheirplayers.Thepitches towhichopenstringsaretunedvaryconsiderablyfromoneinstru‐ menttoanother.Table7showsafewtuningvariantsforsomecom‐ mon string instruments. String note names are provided for clarificationanddonotnecessarilyindicateconcertpitch.25 Table7. Somecommonstring‐instrumenttunings26 instrument
Lowstring
Banjo
highstring
G
D/C
G
B
*Banjo–Tenor
C
G
D
A
C
Bass
E
A
D
G
G
D
*Bouzouki Charango
G
D
instrument Banjo TenorBanjo Bass
A
D
Bouzouki* Charango
C
E
A
E
G
D
A
E
Fiddle
D
G
B
E
Guitar(Table8)
Mandolin/Violin
G
D
A
E
Mandolin
*Saz
C/D
G
C
sa C
ma E
pa G
sa+1 C+1
sa+2*Sitar C+2(e.g.)
Fiddle *Guitar(Table8)
E
A
*Sitar (e.g.)
sa‐1 C‐1
pa‐1 G‐1
*Ud(Arabian)
D
G
Ukelele
Saz*
A
D
G
C
Ud(Arabian)*
A
D
F#
B
Ukelele
SeveralinstrumentslistedinTable7havecommonalternatetun‐ ings.Forexample,asazcanbetuned ,whileabouzoukicanbe tuned or (2×4‐string),or (2×3‐string,common in rebetiki). Ud tunings vary considerably from region to region (Turkey,Armenia,etc.)andfiddletuningsareoftenadjustedtothe characterofthemusictobeplayed,typicallytocreatetonic‐and‐ fifth drone effects (g-d-g-d, g#-d#-g#-d#, a-d-a-d, a-e-a-e, etc.). Somecommonalternativeguitartunings(a.k.a.scordatura)usedin anglophonemusictraditionsaresetoutinTable8.Allthesetun‐ ingscanbetransposedusingacapo.27 25. InScandinavianfiddling,forexample,standardviolintuningisoftenraised byawholetone. 26.
Standardtuningsvarywidelyforinstrumentsmarkedwithanasterisk.Onlyone commontuningisgiveninTable7.Forbanjotunings,seep.338,ff.
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Itshouldalsobenotedthatseveralstringinstrumentsusedinthe MiddleEast,theArabworldandtheIndiansubcontinent(e.g.saz, tambur) are provided with ligatures which function as moveable fretsallowingthemusiciantoaccommodatetuningsbasedonadi‐ visionoftheoctaveintomorethantwelveintervals(Table6,p.80). Table8. Somealternateguitartunings27 Name
high string
Lowstring
STANDARD
E
A
D
G
B
E
OpenE
E
B
E
G#
B
E
OpenDorVestapol
D
A
D
F#
A
D
DropD
D
A
D
G
B
E
DropdoubleD
D
A
D
G
B
D
D‘modal’
D
A
D
D
A
D
Usage general Deltablues,folk
‘folk’and relatedstyles
DADGAD
D
A
D
G
A
D
OpenGorTaropatch
D
G
D
G
B
D
slide,Deltablues
Dobro
G
B
D
G
B
D
Deltablues, Country
OpenAorHawaiian
E
A
E
A
C#
E
Hawaiian,slide
Csixth
C
G
C
G
A
E
‘NewAge’
Asmentionedinthesectionaboutnote(p.51),someinstruments have double sets of strings, for example the twelve‐string guitar (2×6),thebouzouki(3×2)andvarioustypesofbalalaika,eachpair ofstringsbeingtunedinunisonorattheoctave.Moreover,eachof thepiano’supperkeysisassigneditsowntriplesetofstrings.The pointofsuchunisonoroctaveduplicationistocreateabrighteror richersoundforeachnote.The‘bright’effectisduetodoublingat theoctaveorhigher,asinthecaseof4‐foot,2‐footandmixturereg‐ istration on the organ. The ‘rich’ effect, however, more likely re‐ lates to unison doubling: that’s because two simultaneously sounding strings, pipes or reeds tuned to the same pitch rarely producethatpitchinperfectunison,withtheresultthatagreater number of partials is created for each note than issues from just 27. SometuningsusedbyJoniMichellandRichardThompsonarementionedon pages335‐336and346‐348.
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oneofthetwo.Westernmusicexploitsthistimbralaspectoftuning inmanyways,ofwhichthreecanbesummarisedasfollows. [1]Thecharacteristic‘rich’soundoftheFrenchaccordionderives fromeachnotebeingassignedtworeedsslightlyoutoftunewith eachother. [2]Recordedtracksareoftendoubled,sometimesseveraltimes,ei‐ therdigitallyor‘live’,tocreateaneffectofmultiplicity.Notonly canthecopiedorrepeatedtracksbeoffsetfromtheoriginalbya few milliseconds, they can also be slightly detuned, either natu‐ rallyorbydigitalmanipulation.Theeffectofslightlydetuninga copied track without simultaneous offsetting resembles the ‘wider’soundproducedbyapplyingchorusormodestamountsof phasingtothesamesignalsource(Lacasse2000:126‐131). [3] Digitally detuning a copied piano track and playing it back withtheoriginalproducesa‘ragtime’effectsimilartothatcreated by an out‐of‐tune piano or by one that has been intentionally ‘soured’. Although,incaseslikethese,tuninghasanobvioustimbralrather thantonalfunction,itshouldbeclearthattonesandtimbresarein‐ terrelated. Indeed, what we hear as two or more separate notes mayinanotherculturalcontextbeperceivedasonesinglesonor‐ ity,orviceversa.Thereisinotherwordsasortofno‐man’s‐land betweentoneandtimbrewhereoneofthetwowillattractmoreof ourattentionthantheother. SofarI’vetriedtoexplainmostbasicconceptsoftonality—note, pitch,tone,tuning,intervalandoctave.Thenexttwochaptersdeal withwaysofconceptualisingtonalvocabulary,i.e.withwaysofde‐ scribingthevarioustonalconstellationsthathelpusaurallydistin‐ guishbetweenmusicalmoods,functionsandcultures.
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Summaryin14points 1. EXTRA‐OCTAVETUNINGexistsbasicallytoensurethatallpartici‐ pantsinamusicaleventperformanygivennoteatthesamepitch. CONCERTPITCH( =440Hz)wasestablishedasinternational standardtofacilitatesuchtuning.ABSOLUTE(ORPERFECT)PITCH isasideeffectofthisstandardisation. 2. INTRA‐OCTAVETUNINGregulatesintervals(see§9)betweenthe octave’s(see§3)constituentpitchessothattheyaresoundedin aconsistentfashion. 3. InmostWesternmusictheOCTAVEistreatedheptatonically,in thesensethatitveryoftenconsistsofsevenbasicsteps(dohrémi fasollati).¹TheOCTAVEissocalledbecauseitistheeighthnote youarriveatifyouascendoneheptatonicstepatatime(dohré mifasollati|doh|). 4. IfdohisTONICandnumbered ,theothersixSCALEDEGREESare numbered . 5. FiveofthestandardWesternheptatonicOCTAVE’SSTEPSare WHOLETONES;theothertwoarebothSEMITONES. 6. ThestandardWesternOCTAVEisalsodividedintoTWELVESEMI‐ TONEStocaterforvaryingplacementoftone‐andsemitone stepsindifferentmodes.SEMITONALVARIANTSprecedetheir relevantSCALEDEGREES,e.g. astheminorthirdand# asthe majorthirdscaledegree. 7. NOTENAMESareidenticalforpitchesseparatedbyanoctave.The pitchfrequencydifferencefactorbetweentwosuchnotesis2, e.g. =220Hz, =440Hz, =880Hz. 8. TheOCTAVEisausefulunitwhenreferringtoREGISTER.A standardpianokeyboardcoversarangeofpitchesfrom29.135 ( )to8,416Hz( ),equivalentto7¼octaves.Theaverage humansingingvoicespansabouttwooctaves. 9. AnINTERVAListhedifferenceinpitchbetweentwotones.Evenif intervalscanbemeasuredinHz,theyaremostoftendesig‐ natedintermsofscaledegreedifference.Inthiswaytheinter‐ valbetween and (e.g.a@anddinA)aswellasbetween and (dandg)isafourth(romancounting:(x+1)‐y=z).
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10. ConventionalSCALEDEGREENAMESlikedominantandsubdomi‐ nantareusefulintheoriesofeuroclassicaltonalitybutareirrele‐ vantormisleadingwhendealingwithmostothertypesoftonality. TheequationofLEADINGNOTEwithscaledegree7( )isparticu‐ larlyproblematic. 11. ‘NATURALINTERVALS’arecharacterisedbysimplefrequencyratios expressingpitchdifference,e.g.3:2fortheperfectfifth.Tuning basedonsuchintervalsisoftencalledJUST‐TONETUNINGandis oftenheardasclearerandbrighterthanEQUAL‐TONETUNING. However,whileg#anda$arepitchedidenticallyinequal‐tone tuning,theycanbeseriouslyoutoftunewithoneanother whentreatedasnaturalintervals. 12. Toavoidtheproblemof‘g#≠a$’,EQUAL‐TONETUNINGadjusts eachoftheoctaveʹstwelveconstituentsemitonessothateachsemi‐ tonestepisintervallicallyidentical.Anequal‐tonesemitoneinter‐ valismeasuredas100cents. 13. Manymusicculturesconfiguretheoctaveʹsconstituentpitches inwaysthatdonotconformtothetwelvesemitonepitchesof Westerntunings.(Table6,p.80). 14. Theindividualstringsofinstrumentsliketheguitarcanbe tunedinawidevarietyofwaystosuitparticulartonalconfigu‐ rations,styles,modesandmoods.
FFBk03Modes1.fm. 2014-08-02, 01:53
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3.Heptatonicmodes Intro Thischapterisinthreeparts:[1]anintroductionthatdefinesbasic termsandsortsoutsomeunderlyingissuesofconceptualconfu‐ sion (pp. 89‐96);[2] a section onthe diatonic heptatonic ‘church’ modes (pp. 98‐116); [3] coverage of several common heptatonic modesthatarerarelyonthecurriculuminWesternseatsofmusi‐ callearning(pp.116‐153).Non‐heptatonicmodesaredealtwithin Chapter4(p.155,ff.). MODE, from Latin modus (=measure, pattern, manner), basically meansawayofdoingthings.Fashionaddictsdressacertainway tobeàlamodeandcomputersbehavedifferentlyinsecuremode, print mode and sleep mode. Modes are also used in many lan‐ guagestorepresentdifferentaspectsoftheverb.InEnglishwedis‐ tinguish between If I were a carpenter1 —the subjunctive modus irrealis—andWhenIwasacarpenter—theindicativemodusrealis. TheseverbalmodesarealsocalledMOODS.Musicalmodescanalso relatetomoods.
InmusictheoryMODEhasaveryparticularmeaning.Medievalthe‐ orists in Europe considered different ways of using rhythm and metreasmodes,butthewordhasforalongtimebeenusedsolely todenotespecificwaysofconceptualisingtonalvocabularyandits configuration.ByTONALVOCABULARYismeantastoreofparticular tonesusedinaparticularbodyofmusic,beitjustashortpassage oracompletework.AswesawinChapter2(e.g.Table6,p.80), somemusicaltraditionsusetonalvocabulariesunfamiliartoWest‐ ernearsinthattheycontainpitchesincompatiblewiththetwelve semitonesofstandardWesterntuning,whileothertraditionsuse those twelve semitones in ways that diverge from conventional andfamiliarWesternnotionsof‘major’and‘minor’. 1. IfIWereACarpenterwasrecordedbyTheFourTops(1968).
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Thenotionofmodeinmusictheoryderivesfromtwomainsources: [1] attempts by medieval European scholars to systematise the tonal vocabulary of liturgical music according to Ancient Greek and Arab concepts —the heptatonic‐diatonic ‘church modes’ (p. 97, ff.); [2] ethnomusicological classification of tonal vocabulary usedintraditionalmusics.PleasenotethattheGreekmodenames in use today—ionian, aeolian, etc.— do not designate the same tonal configurations as in Ancient Greece and that, like a roman font(notlike‘Romanhistory’or‘theRomans’),thosemodenames startwithalower‐caseletter.2 Oneimportantstepingettingtogripswithhowandwhydifferent musicssounddifferentistodistiltheirtonalvocabularydownto singleoccurrencesofeachconstituentnoteinsideoneoctaveand tocheckwhichofthosenotesareusedmostfrequentlyoraspoints ofrepose,referenceorclosure.3Suchdistillationoftonalvocabu‐ larycanthenbepresentedasa MODE,withitsconstituentpitches arrangedconcisely,inscalarorder,insideoneoctave.4A MODEis simplythemanageableconceptualunitresultingfromsuchdistill‐ ation. Please note that MODE can refer to tonal vocabularies in termsofbothmelodyandharmonybutthatthischapterandthe nextonedealmainlywithmelodic(monophonic)aspectsofmode. Anotherlimitationonwhatfollowsisthatthecountlessmelodic modesusedindifferentmusictraditionsacrosstheworldjustcan‐ notbedealtwithinabookofthissizeandthatIhavehadtofocus onmodesrelevantto‘everydaytonality’oftheurbanWest.5Toput some meat on this rather theoretical bone, let’s start with some‐ thingfamiliar. 2. ReasonsforthisconventionaregiveninthePreface(p.45). 3. Thisprocessisnotapplicabletoallmusicaltraditionswhosetonalconfigura‐ tionsmayvaryfromoneoctaveregistertoanother,butitdoesapplytothebulk ofwhatwehearonaneverydaybasisintheurbanWest. 4. Forexample,theascendingsequenceofnotes [ ]correspondsto scaledegrees1234567[8]oftheaeolianmode(seefig.16,p.101). 5. Thereare120(5!)permutationsofthefivegivenpitchesinonesimplepenta‐ tonicmode,720(6!)possibleconfigurationsofahexatonic,5040(7!)inahepta‐ tonicandnearly50million(12!=479,001,600)inadodecaphonicmode.A notionaldefinitionof‘everydaytonality’isprovidedinthePreface,pp.21‐24.
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Scales,modes,tonalvocabulary Ex.2. UKnationalanthem(GodSaveTheQueen)
Example2containssevendifferenttones— and .Some ofthosenotesaremoreimportantthanothers.Particularlyimpor‐ tantisthenote because:[1]thetunebothstartsandendsonthat note;[2]thetune’sfirsthalfalsofinisheson (bar6);[3]28.6%of the melody consists of the note .6 That’s why is heard as the tune’smainreferencetone,itstonalcentre,itskeynote,itstonic.We cansaythatthetuneis‘inG’.AsshowninTable2(p.43),amode’s tonicisnumberedasscaledegree .Theothersixnotesinex‐ ample2arenumbered2through7becausethetuneisheptatonic (ἑπτά=7): it contains no more and no less than seven differently namednotes.Theorderoftheirfirstappearanceinexample2is: (thenote inbar1), ( ,alsoinbar1), ( ,bar2), ( ,bar3), ( ,bar3), ( ,bar7)and ( ,bar13). Figure 13 (below) shows exactly the same tonal vocabulary dis‐ tilledtosingleoccurrencesofnotesrearrangedinascendingscalar forminsideoneoctavedelimitedbyitskeynoteortonic, .Suchre‐ duction of a real tune to an intra‐octave abstraction of notes de‐ mandsthattonesregistrallyoutsidethatoctavebeincludedinside it.That’swhyGodSaveTheQueen’slowestnote,the inbars1and 5ofexample2,isshownanoctavehigherinfigure13. Fig.13.IonianmodeinGwithscaledegreenumbersandnotenames
Although figure 13 looks like a G major scale, it’s not the sort of scale you hear in real music situations. Indeed, the tonal reality fromwhichthescalarrepresentationofamodeisdistilledintoa 6. goccupies12of42beats.Noneoftheothersixnotescomeclosetothatcount.
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theoreticalmodelveryrarelyfeaturesscalarrunsthroughanoc‐ tave.Figure13issimplytheabstractionofaspecifictonalvocabu‐ lary: it’s the heptatonic ionian mode in G reduced to single occurrences of its constituent notes. Its scalar presentation just makesiteasiertoseethosefeaturesataglance.Tomaketheab‐ stractnatureofthatvisualrepresentationasclearaspossible,mode notesarerenderedasstemlessblobs,indicatingthattheyhaveno duration or rhythm, while the absence of bar lines suggests that theyhavenometre.Figure13andsimilarabstractionsofmodeare nomoreactualmusicanythanthealphabetislanguageinaction. Inmusicalpractice,modesworkmoreintermsofcharacteristicmo‐ tifsandturnsofphrasethanofscalarabstraction.TheUKnational anthemtune’stypicallyioniancadenceformulae and (bars 5‐6, 13‐14) areapossiblecasein point because neitherof themisincludedintheabstractionoffigure13,whichdistillsthe ionianmodeofnotjusttherealGodSaveTheQueen(ex.2)butalso oftheentirelyfictitiousversionshownasexample3. Ex.3. FictitiousGodSaveTheQueen(alsoinionianG)
Example3isjustasionianasexample2.Bothhavegastonic( ), bothcontain f#),andbothsharethe samebasicmelodicprofile,buttheyaresignificantlydifferentin howthatsametonalvocabularyactuallysounds.Themoststriking differenceisthatbetweentherelativeimportanceof (f#)inthe originalanditsuseonlyasbriefpassingnotesinexample3where ( )isgivenmuchmoreprominence(bars2,6‐7,11,13)thanin example 2 (just one occurrence in bar 13). The result is that the counterpoise —the main tonal counterbalance or contrast to the tonic(g)7—shiftsfromf#andainexample2toeithereandb,orto eanda,inexample3.Inshort,thespecifictonalconfigurationofa melody is not just a matter of identifying its tonal vocabulary in termsofa mode:modalidentificationshould ideally becomple‐ 7. COUNTERPOISE:seeGlossaryandpp.161‐164,340‐351.
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mentedwithobservationsabouttherelativeprominenceofcertain tones,andcombinationsoftones,withinthatvocabulary.Thisas‐ pectofmodecomesmuchclosertohowmusiciansactuallyusea tonal vocabulary.It also comes alittle closer to concepts likethe ArabmaqamorIndianrāga,bothofwhichincludebasicformulae for the performance of melodic contour, mood and direction as partoftheirtheory.8 Despitetheproblemsandlimitationsjustexplained,Iwillinthis bookbeusingmode,asdefinedabove,asthefirstportofconcep‐ tualcallfortworeasons:[1]it’smorelikelytobefamiliartoreaders thanothertheoreticalmodels;[2]itcanbeausefulandmanagea‐ bletoolfortheorisingtonalvocabulary,providedthatthesortof limitationsjustmentionedaretakenintoconsideration;9[3]it’sa moreadaptableconceptthanthatthescaleofconventionalmusic theory.Butthereareotherproblemswiththeconceptofmode. Anothersetofdifficultiesderivesfromthefactthateuroclassical musictheoryhasingeneralonlyhadtocontendwith‘major’and ‘minor’modes whereasan almost endlessarrayofmodes arein daily circulation outside that tradition. Now, with such tonal di‐ versityit’sclearlyusefulifyoucanidentifydifferenttypesoftonal‐ ity without having to describe them all in detail. That involves recognising the sound of various modes, being familiar withthe pitches they contain, with how they’re configured and with the musictraditionstowhichtheybelong,etc.Allthoseissuesareat the heart of Chapters 3 and 4. The point is that although modes maynot‘tellthewholestory’,theycanbeausefulstartingpointin the understanding of different tonal traditions. That said, before consideringthepanoplyofmodesouttherein‘everydaytonality’, it’s necessary to grasp how conventional Western music theory’s major and minor modes fit into the bigger picture, and that in‐ volvesunderstandingtheconceptofIONIANISATION. 8. Seep.118,ff.I’mindebtedtoSimonMcKerrell(Newcastle)forvaluableinput abouttheproblemsandlimitationsofmodeindesignatingtypesoftonalityin variousmusicaltraditions(seeMcKerrell,2009and2011). 9. See,forexample,thespecifictraitsoftwotypesofaeolianmelody(pp.109‐ 116).
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Ionianisation( ) ThetuneofGodSaveTheQueenisintheionianmode.It’sheptatonic becauseitcontainssevendifferenttonesandit’salsodiatonic.10The ionian is just one of seven heptatonic diatonic modes, each of whichcanbeused,asweshallshortlysee(p.98,ff.),tocreatequite differentsortsofsound.Thosedifferencesdependonsuchstruc‐ turalnicetiesastheuniquelocationofthetwosemitoneintervals in each diatonic mode.11 The aim of this subsection is to explain what makes Western music theory’s notions of major and minor bothspecialandproblematic. UsingthekeysofCandEbywayofillustration,Figure14(p.95) showstheonemajorandthreeminormodesthateuroclassicalper‐ formershavetopractiseasscalesbasedoneachofequal‐tonetun‐ ing’stwelvepossiblekeynotes.Thescaledegreenumbersplaced aboveeachnoteineachofthesefourmodesshowthat , ,and varyfromonemodetoanotherwhile , , and remainconstant. Duetoitsdominance inthe euroclassicaltradition,conventional musictheorytreatstheIONIANMODEasthenormfromwhichallother modes are heard to diverge. Indeed, even though only three of the seven‘church’modescontainamajorthirdandonlytwoamajor seventh,conventionalmusictheorytreatsthosetwoscaledegrees asdefault:‘ ’and‘ ’aretakentomean and .12Sincetheio‐ nianisjustoneofmanymodesdiscussedinthisbook— , and arealsoverycommon—,theaccidentals#and$willbeusedin conjunctionwiththosethreescaledegreeabbreviations.13 10. DIATONIC(seep.98andGlossary,p.483)isusuallyopposedtochromatic, meaning,inWesternmusictheory,thatthemusicthusqualifiedcontains pitchesdivergingfromthediatonic,TWO‐SEMITONE,FIVEWHOLE‐TONEnormof euroclassicalmusic’s‘major‐minor’tonality.Theothersixheptatonic‐diatonic modesarethedorian,phrygian,lydian,mixolydian,aeolianandlocrian. 11. Heptatonicanddiatonicarejusttaxonomicshorthanddistinguishingonegen‐ eralcategoryoftonalvocabularyfromotherslikepentatonic,hexatonic,hemi‐ tonic,anhemitonic,chromatic,etc.Themelodicminoristheonlyeuroclassical scaletodifferinascentanddescent.Aboutrisingandfallingphrygian/Hijaz phrases,seepp.134‐136. 12. Similarly,‘ThispieceisinC’ismuchmorelikelytomeanthatit’sinCmajor thanminor.Moreover,whilethesingle‐letterchordabbreviation‘C’meansC major,aCminorchordneedstobespecifiedas‘Cm’(seep.240).
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Fig.14. Euroclassicalmusic’sfourmodesinscalarform
Thethreeminor‐modevariantsinfigure14aresocalledbecause, unliketheionian,theyallfeatureaminorthird( or‘flatthree’). Scale degrees 6 and 7 ( , ) are configured in different ways for each of those three minor‐mode variants. [1] The ascending me‐ lodicminorscalecontains,liketheionian(major)mode,amajor sixth( )andmajorseventh( ).[2]Thedescendingmelodicmi‐ norvariantisintheaeolianmode(or‘natural’minor)andcontains bothaminorsixth( or‘flatsix’)andaminorseventh( or‘flat seven’).[3]Theharmonicminorscalecontainsthesamenotesin bothascentanddescent,andincludes,liketheaeolianmode,ami‐ norsixth($6,‘flatsix’)butalso,liketheionianmode,amajorsev‐ enth( ,‘sharpseven’).Minorscales[1]and[3]canbeunderstood asionianisedvariantsoftheaeolianor‘natural’minormode[2].14 As we shall in Chapter 8, the major seventh or ‘leading note’ ( , ‘sharp seven’ or ‘major seven’) is so central to the mechanics of tonal direction in euroclassical harmony that a minor seventh, suchasproducedonthewhitenotesofapianokeyboardwith askeynote(theaeolianmode),onlyexistsindescendingmelodic contexts.Moreover,asthelabelharmonicminorsuggests,the‘natu‐ 13. Seepp.37‐39formoreonscaledegreeabbreviationconventions. 14. Variant[2]inex.14andmode6inTable16(p.101)areaeolian(‘natural’).
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ral’minorseventhofaminor‐modetriadbasedonthefifthdegree ofthescale(‘v’,e.g.anEminortriadcontaining inthekeyofA minor)is,ineuroclassicalharmony,normallyalteredtoamajorsev‐ enth( or‘sharpseven’, )toproduceamajorchordfunctioning as‘dominant’(‘V’)inthehomekey(e.g.EorEéinAminor)and producingthe‘perfectcadence’E7?Am (V?i)ratherthanEm?Am (v-i).Intheionianisedworldsofjazzandeuroclassicaltonalitythe latterisheardaslessdirectional,lessfinal,becauseitcontainsno ascendingleadingnote,no goingto (= ).15 I’vejumpedthegunhere,rushingintointricaciesofeuroclassical harmonybeforeexplaininghowevenmelody,letaloneharmony, usesmodesassetsoftonalvocabularythatcontributetothecrea‐ tionofvariationandidentityinmusic.
Modesand‘modality’ Modesaretonalphenomenaandmodejustmeansthetonalvocabu‐ laryusedinaparticularextract,pieceorstyleofmusic.However, ‘modality’isoftenusedinconventionalWesternmusictheorynot somuchtoidentifyaspecifictonalvocabularyastodesignateen masseinnumerabletypesoftonicaltonalitythatdivergefromone singletypeandfromoneonly.16Labelslike‘modaljazz’and‘mo‐ dalharmony’tendtomeanjazzandharmonyusingtonicalconfig‐ urations other than the basically ionian‐tertial tonality of the euroclassical and standard jazz repertoires. The differing tonal norms of such repertoires as blues‐based rock, of some types of post‐bebopjazz,ofmuchpre‐BaroqueEuropeanmusic—infactof musicsfromalmostanypartoftheworldatanytime—areinother wordsoftenlumpedtogetherundertherag‐bagheading‘modal’. Ontheotherhand,theionianisedmajor‐minormodalityoftheeu‐ roclassicalrepertoireandofpopularmusicusingthatsamesortof tonalsystem(nationalanthems,hymns,marches,waltzes,parlour song,jazzstandards,etc.)israrely,ifever,referredtoasmodal.It’s morelikelytobecalledtonalwithoutanyqualifier,asifnoother kind of tonality existed. This useof tonality and modality implies 15. Formoreabout$7v.#7issue,seep.393,ff. 16. Formoreontonalv.modal,seep.58,ff.
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thatmodes,bydefinitiontonalphenomena,aren’ttonal,andthat onetypeoftonality—theeuroclassical—isn’tmodal,eventhough itcouldn’texistwithouttheionianmodeandtheionianisedminor modesthatdefineitsspecifictonalidentity.So,toavoidtermino‐ logicalconfusionandembarrassment,allmodes,includingtheio‐ nian, will, as abstractions of tonal vocabulary, be treated here as tonalphenomenacentraltotheunderstandingofanytypeoftoni‐ caltonality.ThebinaryTONALV.MODALisinotherwordsnonsen‐ sicalandwillnotbeusedinwhatfollows.
Heptatonic:whyseven? Heptatonicmodesaren’tnecessarilymorewidelyusedthanothers buttheydoturnupmoreofteninmusictheory,notonlyintheWest butalsoinChina,Java,Japan,IndiaandtheArabworld.Inthese traditionstheoctaveisunderstoodtoconsistofsevenunderlying tonalpositionsorsteps(Table9).Thesebasicsteps,numbered , arecalledSCALEDEGREESandcanbespecifiedmoreprecisely,either microtonally(e.g. §Î )or,asinWesternmusictheory,semi‐ tonally (e.g. ). For example, ‘ ’ (‘flat six’) means a minor sixth located eight semitones above the tonic, ‘ ’ (‘sharp six’) a majorsixthorninesemitonesabove . Table9.HeptatonicnotenamesinArab,ChineseandHindustanimusictheory17 Scale degree
=
Movable sol-fa doh
Arab movable sol-fa
China (transcr.)
India
ré
mi
fa
sol
la
ti
doh
Rast dāl
Douka rāʹ
Jaharka mīm
Nawa fāʹ
Hussayni şād
Awj lām
Kirdan tāʹ
… dāl
上 shàng
尺 chĕi
工 gōng
凡 fán
六 liù
五 wũ
乙 yí
上 shàng
Sa
Re
Ga
Ma
Pa
Dha
Ni
Sa
17. InNorthIndianmusictheory,SaReGaMaPaDhaandNiareshortforShadja, Rishabh,Gandhar,Madhyam,Pancham,DhaivatandNishad.N.B.Arabicnote namesvaryaccordingtotradition.ThoseinTable9arePalestinianandapply onlytothecentraloctaveinatwo‐octave(Diwan)fundamentalscale.Withdoh/ RastsettoC,thetable’ssevenArabnotenamesareequivalentto § § .The‘Arabsol‐fa’syllables(dāl,rāʹ,mīm,etc.)arealmostcertainlythe sourceofEuropeansolmisation(doh,ré,mi,etc.).
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ThankstoitsuseinArab,IndianandEuropeanmusictheory,the heptatonicscaledegreeiswidelyacceptedasthebasicunitfordes‐ ignating theconstituent tonesofalmost any modebasedon any tonic,nomatterhowmanystepsthemodecontains.Forexample, ‘ ’givesthefiveheptatonicscaledegreesofthedoh‐pen‐ tatonicmode,while‘( ) ’designates atwelve‐notechromaticdescentthroughanysingleoctave. Themodesmostfamiliartoeuroclassicalperformers—theionian anditsionianisedminor‐modevariants—havealreadybeenpre‐ sented(Fig.14,p.95).Thosemodesaren’tjustheptatonic:they’re alsodiatonic.ADIATONICmodehastwodefiningfeatures.[1]Itin‐ cludeseachofthemode’ssevendifferentlynamedscaledegrees, forexample as —theaeolianmodein A—or forthesamescaledegreesandmodeinC (fig.16,p.101).[2]Adiatonicmodecontainstwostepsofonesemi‐ tone(‘½’)andfiveofawholetone(‘1’),forexample1‐½‐1‐1‐½‐1‐1 fortheaeolianbut1‐1‐½‐1‐1‐1‐½fortheionian(fig.16,p.101).18
Theheptatonic‐diatonic‘church’modes Theory The‘church’modes(a.k.a.‘ecclesiastical’)aren’tjustatopicofarcane interesttomusichistorians(Fig.15a).They’realsorelevanttomu‐ sicianstryingtomastervariousjazzandrockidioms(Fig.15b).19 Structurally,churchmodespresuppose:[1]thedivisionoftheoc‐ taveintosevenconstituentpitches(heptatonic),fiveseparatedby awhole‐toneinterval,andtwobyasemitone(diatonic);[2]atonal centre,keynoteortoniconscaledegree1( ),whichcanoften(not always)beidentifiedasa(realorpotential)droneorasthefinal,or mostfrequentlyrecurringnoteinthemode. 18. Theharmonicminorfeaturesindividualoccurrencesofallsevendifferentnotes insidetheoctave )butdoesn’tfollowthe2‐SEMITONE /5‐whole‐ tonenormofdiatonicismbecauseitruns1‐½‐1‐1‐½‐1½‐½.Ofcourse,tonicsol‐ fasyllablescanalsobeusedtodesignatetonesinrelativeterms(seep.53,ff.). 19. See,forexample,theiPhoneapp´UnderstandModes’(CipherArtsLtd.and MarkWingfield,2012)oralmostanynumberofGuitarPlayermagazine.
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Fig.15. Modaltheory,ancientandmodern20
Figure16(p.101)setsoutthesevenheptatonic‘church’modesin three columns. COLUMN 1 gives the names of each mode and presentsitsconstituenttonesusingthewhitenotesonlyofapiano keyboard.Eachdiatonicmode’stwosemitonesteps—betweenmi andfa,tianddoh(e\f, b\conthewhitekeys)—aremarkedwith aslur.Theotherfivesteps—do‐ré,ré‐mi,fa‐sol,sol‐laandla‐ti(c-d, d-e, f-g, g-aanda-bonthewhitekeys)areallwholetonesinall sevenmodes.Thealternativemodenamesinbracketsderivefrom thetonicnote( )whenthemodeissoundedonthewhitenotesof apianokeyboard,e.g.‘rémode’or‘Dmode’forthedorian( to onthewhitenotes),‘mimode’or‘Emode’forthephrygian( to ). COLUMN2presentseachmodewith astonic.Italsoshowseach mode’s scale degrees with the apposite accidental ( / ) added to distinguishmajorfromminorthirds,sixthsandsevenths,21forex‐ ampletheoccurrenceof and inthedorianasopposedto and intheionian.Ahorizontallinemarksthepositionofeach mode’sinternaltritonebetweenfaandti.Thattritoneisbetween and forallthewhite‐notemodes(column1),butitspositionvar‐ iesincolumns2and3.Forexample,whilethefa‐titritoneisf-bin 20. Fig.15aisfromKepler’sHarmonicesmundi(1619).Imagesinfig.15barefrom theinternet.Awebsearchfor“guitar modes scales”generatedamillionhits[201401-31].Modesareamarketablecommodity. 21. Table10revealsthat and arethescaledegreesmostsusceptibletoaltera‐ tion. (phrygian), (lydian)and (locrian)areexceptionalasalterations.
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Cionianand inEionian(both ),it’salwaysbetween and inthedorianmode( inCdorianand inEdo‐ rian),22between and forthephrygian, and forthelydian, andsoon.Theseinternaltritonepositions,uniquetoeachmode, aremarkedmoreclearlybythethickverticallinesinTable10(p. 102). Since all themodes in Figure 16 containa tritone,they can alsobecalledtritonal,aswellasdiatonicandheptatonic.23 COLUMN3infigure16servestwopurposes.Oneistofurtherclar‐ ifythepositionofsemitone(‘½’)andwhole‐tone(‘1’)scalarsteps in each mode, the other to present each mode with a different tonic.24Theuniquepatterningoftoneandsemitonesteps,andthe unique positioning of the fa‐ti tritone are essential factors distin‐ guishingonemodefromanother.
It’sthisuniquecombinationofscaledegrees,ofhowthemode’sin‐ dividualnotessoundinrelationtoeachotherandtothetonic,that giveseachmodeitsuniqueflavour.Forexample,theionian(Cor doh mode), lydian (F/fa mode) and mixolydian (G/sol mode) all contain (‘major third’). This common trait gives rise to their qualificationas‘majormodes’,whilethelabel‘minor’isappliedto thedorian(D/ré),phrygian(E/mi)andaeolian(A/la),modes,which allfeature (‘flatthree’or‘minorthird’;seeTable10,p.102). Thesepatternsoftritoneplacementandscalarintervalsproducea uniqueSCALEDEGREEPROFILEforeachmode,forexample fortheionian, forthedorian.AsTable10(p. 102)shows,thosestringsoffiguresindicatethatwhilethedorian shares , and in common with most of the other modes, the combinationofminorthird( ,‘flat3’),majorsixth( ,‘sharp6’) andminorseventh( ,‘flat7’)isexclusivetothedorian,justasthe mixolydianisalonewithits and [TextcontinuesbelowFigure101.] 22. InD(ré)dorian,sol‐fadohissetto ,inCdorianto ,inB doriantoa$,etc. 23. TRITONALmeanscontainingatritone;TRITONICmeansconsistingofthreetones. 24. AllsevenmodescanbetransposedusinganyofWesternequaltuning’stwelve tonesastonic.Iamawarethattheionian(Cordoh)modeneedednotransposi‐ tionintoCandthephrygian(Eormimode)notranspositionintoE!
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Fig.16. ThesevenEuropeanheptatonicdiatonic‘church’modes25
Table10(p.102)alsoshowsthatthelydianistheonlyoneofthe seven diatonic heptatonic modes to include a raised fourth ( ) andthatthelocrianisalonewithoutaperfectfifth,themostlikely 25. ModenamemnemonicbyReffett(2013):I(ionian)Don’t(dorian)Punch(phry‐ gian)Like(lydian)Mohammed(mixolydian)A‐(æolian)‐Li(locrian).
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reasonforitsrareusage,apartfrominheavymetal,andthereason foritsinfrequentappearanceintheaccountthatfollows.26Apart fromthelocrian,then,thephrygianistheonlymodetofeature (‘flattwo),butitsinclusionof (‘perfectfifth’)meansthatitcanbe usedeffectivelyinmusicrelyingondrones,naturalovertones,etc. Table10.Uniquescale‐degreeprofilesoftheheptatonic‘church’modes. ionian (C/doh) dorian (D/ré) phrygian (E/mi) lydian (F/fa) mixolydian (G/sol) aeolian (A/la) locrian (B/ti)
Allthistheoreticaldetailaboutmodemayseemnerdyandarcane butit’sessentialtotheunderstandingofhowmodeswork,atleast ifthetheoryisalsorootedinpracticalfamiliaritywithrealsounds. Suchfamiliarityiseasytoacquireevenifyouaren’tamusician,or if you have no access to a piano keyboard, because many user‐ friendlyMIDIkeyboardappscanbedownloadedfreetoyourcom‐ puter,tabletorsmartphone.To‘checkoutthefeel’ofamodeusing onlythewhitenotesofthekeyboard,allyouneedtodois: 1. Holddownorrepeatthetonicnote(cforionian, fordorian, forphrygian,etc.)likeadroneinthebassregister. 2. Withthekeynote(tonic)soundingmoreorlessconstantly,play shortmelodicpatterns,circlingfirstroundthekeynote,then venturingfurtherafield,usingrisingandfallingpatterns. 3. Listenoutforhowthemodesoundswhenyouincludethe semitoneintervals or inshortphrasesthatfinishonthe keynote( ,thetonic)oronthefifth( ).27 26. Mostmusiccultures(notall,seethepelogtuninginTable6,p.80)treattheper‐ fectfifthasaconsonance.Thelocrianmode’sdiminishedfifth( 5)meansthat nonormalconsonance(noheavymetalpowerchord,noHighlandbagpipe drone,no‘commontriad’)canbeconstructedonitstonic.Thelocrianmodeis seldomused,exceptbythrashordeathmetalsoloistswiththeirpenchantfor thetritone,a.k.a.thediabolusinmusica,which,quiteappropriately,isalsothe titleofa1998albumbythrashmetalbandSlayer.
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4. Applythesewhite‐notes‐onlytrickstoanyofthesevenmodes showninTable10. Each of the heptatonic modes in Figure 16 (p. 101) can be trans‐ posedsothatanyoftheWesternoctave’stwelveconstituentsemi‐ tone steps can act as tonic, just as long as the mode’s unique sequenceoftonesandsemitonesisretained.Forexample,theio‐ nianmode,withitsuniqueascendingpatternofsteps—1‐1‐½‐1‐1‐ 1‐½—andofscaledegrees— —produces,with as itstonic,thenotes .Transposingthatsamemodewith thosesamesteppatternsuponesemitonefromCtoD produces theionianmodeon : .Then,ifyoutransposethe samepatterndownaminorthirdfromCtoAyouendupwiththe ionianmodeinA( ).Ifyoucarryoutthosetwotrans‐ positions of the ionian mode, you will have played the same io‐ nian‐modescaleinthreedifferentKEYS:C,D andA.
Examples Anothereffectivewayofidentifyingmodesistoassociateeachof them with a particular tune. This section provides examples of tunesinthesevendiatonicmodesjustpresented.
Ionian:
The IONIAN(heptatonicCordoh‐mode)issofamiliarintheWest thatit’shardlyworthmentioning.Justthinkofwhatsoundssimi‐ larinGodSaveTheQueen(p.91),theInternationale,theStar‐Span‐ gledBanner,HappyBirthdayandJingleBellsandyou’llgettheidea. They’realleitherbasicallyortotallyionian(‘inthemajorkey’).
Dorian:
ThedistinctiveflavouroftheDORIANmodecomesfromitsunique combinationof and ,asheardinex.4( indorianE). 27. is inAaeolian, inCionian, inDdorian, inEphrygianand inG mixolydian(seeTable10).
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Ex.4. Simon&Garfunkel(1966):ScarboroughFair(Eng.trad.)Edorian
TheBlacksmith(ex.5)isalsodorian,thistimeinD,evenifbars1‐4 aresimplyla‐pentatonic( ;seep.160,ff.).Scaledegree ( ),essentialtothedoriansound,appearsasupbeattobar5and inbar7,while ( )occursthreetimesinbars6‐8. Ex.5. SteeleyeSpan(1971):TheBlacksmith(Eng.trad.);Ddorian
Thedorianraisedsixth( ; inD)isheardinbar3ofexample6. Thatnotemakesanotherwisehexatonicdittyintowhatmaywell betheanglophoneworld’smostfamousdoriantune.28 Ex.6. TheDrunkenSailor(Eng.trad.,citedfrommemory;Ddorian)
Ex.7. NoëlNouvelet(Fr.Trad.,citedfrommemory);Ddorian
AlthoughNoëlNouvelet(ex.7)isinfacthexatonicbecauseitcon‐ tainsonlyscaledegrees ( inD)andno ( ),itsdorianflavourisunmistakableduetothestrongpresenceof theuniquelydorianplacementofthetritonebetweenscaledegrees and ( and inD,bars1and2).Forsomethingtosounddo‐ rianyouhavetohearatleast and . and areneededto 28. ThehexatonicdittyconsistsofthetwoarpeggiatedtriadsDm( ) andC( )inbars1‐2.Thetune’s isthe onthe‘‐en’of‘drunken’ inbar3.‘Earlyinthemorning’issettoala‐pentatonicdescent .
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establishthetonalcentrewhile and arewhatmakethedorian soundreallydistinctive.Thethreedorianscaledegrees and arelessspecificsincetheyarealsopresentinboththemixolydian andaeolianmodes(seeTable10,p.102).
Phrygian:
ThePHRYGIANisdistinctiveasaheptatonicdiatonicmodebecause it’stheonlyonetoinclude (‘flattwo’,‘flatsupertonic’,‘minor second’,etc.)andaperfectfifth( ).Unlikephrygianharmony(p. 290,ff.),phrygianmelodyisratherunusualintheurbanWest.Itis, however,widespread,asmaqamKurd,intheBalkans,Turkey,the ArabworldandontheIndiansubcontinent.29Example8,anex‐ tract from one of the most popular Greek songs of recent years, containsastrong presence( )inbars22‐23. Ex.8. SokratesMálamas(2005):‘Princess’;Ephrygian(dromosOusak)
Another descent with closure is audible in the D‐phrygian pasticheofSpanishnesscitedinexample9( ). Ex.9. Cordigliera(Italianlibrarymusic,n.d.,CAM004);Dphrygian
Phrygian melody also turns up in at least two popular pieces of earlytwentieth‐centurymusicforstringorchestra—Vaughan‐Wil‐ liams’FantasiaonaThemebyThomasTallis(1910)andBarber’sAda‐ gioforStrings(1936)inphrygianF(ex.10, ).30
29. Flat2modesotherthanphrygianaredealtwithinthesection‘Maqamat,flat twosandforeignness’,p.118,ff.
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Ex.10.SamuelBarber:AdagioforStrings,bars4‐8;Fphrygian
Lydian:
TheLYDIANis,likethephrygian,averydistinctiveheptatonicdia‐ tonicmodebecauseitcontainsascaledegreefoundinnoneother. It’stheraisedfourth( )thatsetsthelydianmodeapart.Heardin thesamebreathas , and ,it’sthe thatgivestheinitial motif from The Simpsons theme (ex. 11a) its lydian flavour, even thoughtheextractisstrictlyspeakinghemitonicpentatonic( )becauseneither ( inClydian)nor ( )areanywheretobe heard.Similarobservationscanbemadeabouttheinitialmotifin theradiosignatureforBBC’sPickofthePops(ex.11b)andaboutthe Romaniandance motif in example 12. They all soundlydianbe‐ causethemode’sunique isheardinthesamebreathasits and .31 Ex.11.(a)DannyElfman(1989):TheSimpsonstheme,leadmotif;Clydian (b)BrianFahey(1960):BBCPickofthePopsmotif;Clydian
Ex.12.RomanianPolkafromRomanianDances(arr.Bartók,1915);Dlydian
30. TheTallisFantasiaincludesmany passages,e.g.as (phrygianG)at bars5and8after‘B’.Thepiece,votedintothirdplacebyClassicalFM’slisten‐ ers,wasusedinthefilmsRemandoalviento(Suárez,1987),MasterandCom‐ mander(Weir,2003)andThePassionofChrist(Gibson,2004).TheBarberAdagio wasbroadcastuponthedeathsofPresidentsRooseveltandKennedy,Prin‐ cessesGraceandDiana,andofAlbertEinstein.Itwasusedinsuchfilmsas Amélie(Jeunet,2001),Lorenzo’sOil(Miller,1992),Platoon(Stone,1986),Sicko (Moore,2007)andTheElephantMan(Lynch,1980).Ithasalsobeencoveredby remixartistslikeWilliamOrbit(1999).Formorephrygian,seep.118,ff. 31. SeealsosectionontheLYDIANFLATSEVENmode,p.143,ff.
Tagg:EverydayTonalityII—3.Heptatonicmodes
Mixolydian:
107
Ex.13.SheMovedThroughTheFair(Brit./Ir.Trad.cit.mem.)Dmixolydian.
Aftertheionian,the MIXOLYDIANisthemostcommonheptatonic modeintraditionalmusicfromtheBritishIsles.Thetunecitedas example13containsallscaledegrees( )inDmixoly‐ dian( )andisknowninnumerousvariants,including theUKhitBelfastChild(SimpleMinds,1989).Itstonalvocabulary, characterisedbyaninternaltritonebetweenmajorthird( )and minorseventh( ),correspondsroughlytothenotesplayableona Highlandbagpipechanter.32Figure17ashowshowthosenotesare writtenforpiperswhilefigure 17bpresentsthepitchesastheyare oftentranscribed,inAmixolydian.Figure17crepresentsthesame ninenotes,butastheyactuallysound,i.e.as mixolydianwithan extra ( )justunderthelower .32 Fig.17. Highlandbagpipechanterpitches:([a],[b]conceptually;[c]:asheard)
Whetherbagpipechanterswereadaptedtocaterforamixolydian tonality that already existed in song, or whether Scottish tunes were influenced by the tonality of Highland pipe chanters (or both),itshouldcomeasnosurprisetofindagreatnumberofScot‐ tishtunesinthemixolydianmode(e.g.ex.14). 32. The ontheHighlandpipechanteristypically10¢and 20¢belowthenear‐ estequivalentpitchinequal‐tonetuning(McKerrell,2011:174‐179).Doesthat meanthechanter’snotesarereallymixolydianorinanothermode?
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Ex.14.TàladhChriosda(Scot.Gael.trad.viaA.Cormack,2011);mixolydianE
MixolydiantunesarealsocommonintraditionalmusicfromEng‐ land(ex.15),Ireland(ex.16)andtheAppalachians(ex.17).33 Ex.15.TheLarkInTheMorning(Eng.trad.viaSteeleyeSpan,1971). Bmixolydian; = )
ManybaiãoandforrótunesfromNortheasternBrazilarealsomixo‐ lydian.Themostfamousoftheseiscitedinexample18. Ex.16.TheLamentationofHughReynolds(fromIrishStreetBallads, 1939).Dmixolydian; = .
33. EightmoreScottishmixolydiantunes:Campbell’sFarewell,SoorPloomsInGala‐ shiels,TheWeeManFromSkye,TheKiltIsMyDelight,TheAtholeHighlanders,The FlowresOfTheForrest(Campin2009);AACameron’sStrathspey,Annochdgur faoin…(Kuntz,2009).EightmixolydiantunesinThePenguinBookofEnglishFolk Songs(1959):TheBanksofNewfoundland(p.16),TheFalseBride(p.37),TheGreen‐ landWhaleFishery(p.50),TheOutlandishKnight(p.80),TheRedHerring(p.86), RoundingTheHorn(p.90),TheWhale‐Catchers(p.100)andTheYoungGirlCut DownInHerPrime(p.108).FourmoreIrishmixolydiantunes:MugOfBrown Ale,PaddyKelly’sJig,TheRed‐HairedBoy(a.k.a.TheJollyBeggarman)andRedi‐ can’s.ThreemoreAppalachianmixolydiantunes:BlackIsTheColorOfMyTrue Love’sHair,OldJoeClarkandJennyInTheCottonPatch.
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Ex.17.I’veAlwaysBeenAGambler(USTrad.viaNewRubyTonic Entertainers,1974, BetsyRutherford).Gmixolydian; = .
Ex.18.LuizGonzaga(Senior):Asabranca(1955).Gmixolydian; = .34
Pleasenotethatthemixolydianmodeisnotanexclusivelypre‐in‐ dustrial affair. Gonzaga’s main fan base was among immigrants fromtheNortheastlivinginBrazil’svastsouthernmetropoles(São Paulo,Rio,etc.).Besides,the sand sinexamples19( and ) and20( and )shoulddispelanynotionofruralantiquity. Ex.19.RighteousBrothers:You’veLostThatLovin’Feelin’,startofv.1 (1964);Cmixolydian;
Ex.20.Beatles:NorwegianWood,sitarintro(1965b).Emixolydian;
Aeolian:
.
Aftertheionian,theaeolianisprobablythemostfamiliarhepta‐ tonicdiatonicmodeintheearsoftheurbanWest.Itturnsupina wide range of musical traditions, including the euroclassical 34. All sinex.18areintheaccordionpart(uppernotes)whichisplayedincon‐ stantparallelthirdswithvocalline(lowernotes).
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whereitprovidestonalmaterialforsomeoftherepertoire’sbest knowntunes(examples21‐23).35 Ex.21.Mozart:Symphonyno.40inGminor(I)(1788),bars1‐4;Gæolian.
Ex.22.Beethoven:Symphonyno.5inCminor(I)(1808),bars6‐13;Cæolian
Ex.23.Chopin:Marchefunèbre(1839);B æolian
Theaeolianmodehasthesamepitchesastheionian,dorianand mixolydianonscaledegrees2,4and5.Itscharacteristicsoundre‐ sideselsewhere,morespecificallyintheuniquepositioningofits two semitone steps — , — and of its internal tritone be‐ tween major second ( ) and minor sixth ( ). The three classical tunesjustquotedputthesedistinctiveaeoliantraitstogooduse. Mozart(ex.21),inGaeolian,letsushearthe ( )semitone threetimesinundertwosecondsandincludesthe tritone( )intheharmonybehindbars4‐5.Beethoven,inCaeolian(ex. 22),usesthe semitonetwice( inbars2‐3,6‐7)andstates the tritone( )boldlyinbar6.Chopin,inB aeolian(ex. 23),usesgracenotestoemphasisethemode’s semitone( ) inbars1‐2andits semitone( )inbars5and6.LikeMozart (ex.21,bars3‐4),Chopinalsointroducesthe descentthat isbothaeolianandphrygian( inex.23)butexclusively aeolianif,asisthecaseintheextractscited,themajorsecond( , not )isalreadyheardaspartofthemode.36 35. Theaeolianisafteralltheonlyheptatonicdiatonicmode,apartfromthe ionian,tobeincludedinconventionalEuropeanmusictheory(asthe‘descend‐ ingmelodicminor’,seefigure14(p.95))andtobepractisedbybuddingeuro‐ classicalperformersasascale. 36. is inbar2oftheMozart(inG)and inbar1oftheChopinextract(inB ).
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InTheLanguageofMusic,DeryckCooke(1959)examinestheaeo‐ liantraitsjustmentioned: , and .Thenumerous examplesofthesemelodicgesturescitedbyCookeareallintheeu‐ roclassicaltraditionandsuggestthatthoseaeolianpatternsinthat traditionoccurincontextsofgrief,pain,anguish,gloom,misery, misfortune,death,mourningandresignation.37Indeed,the and gesturesoffigure24,inDaeolian,certainlyfitthepen‐ itenceimplicitinthewordsKyrieeleison(Lord,havemercy). Ex.24.Kyrie‘OrbisFactor’:aeolianinD38
Even in The Sacred Harp (1844),39 despite strong tonal influences frompopularruralsongofBritishorigin,aeoliantunesaremore likelytobesungashymnsofgloom(death,penitence,etc.),while hymnsofpraiseandgloryaremoreoftensettoionian,doh‐penta‐ tonic,ormajor(orquartal)hexatonictunes.39Asimilartendencyto connect the aeolian with ‘gloom’ has lived on in musical styles drawingontheeuroclassicaltradition. Budapest pianist Rezső Seress’s Vége a világnak (1933), later re‐ corded by Billie Holiday as Gloomy Sunday (ex. 25), became a 37. SeeCooke(1959)on‘(5)‐6‐5(Minor)’and‘1‐2‐3‐2(Minor)’(pp.146‐151),‘1‐(2)‐ (3)‐(4)‐5‐6‐5(Minor)’(pp.156‐159)and8‐7‐6‐5(Minor)’(pp.162‐165).I’musing ‘gloom’asumbrellaconceptforthestatesofmindenumeratedbyCooke(grief, misery,misfortune,mourning,resignation,etc.).YoucouldarguethatMozart’s Rondoallaturca(1783)andSchubert’sErlkönig(1814),bothæolianbutrunning athightempoandsurfacerate,expresssomethingquitedifferent. 38. Themedievalclassificationisdorianwiththe treatedasanaccidental. 39. TheSacredHarp,firstpublishedin1844,isacollectionoftraditionalhymns sungacappellainProtestantchurchesintheUSruralSouth.Thehymnbook’s three‐partarrangementsdevelopedfromthevernacularharmonysungin eighteenth‐centuryruralBritainbeforetheintroductionoforgansandchoir‐ masters.Manyofitsmelodiesareanonymous,oftenpentatonic,hexatonicorin othermodesthantheheptatonicionian.Doh,ré,mietc.renderedasdifferently shapednoteheads(‘shapenotesinging’).Threeexamplesof‘doom‐and‐ gloom’aeolianhymnsinTheSacredHarp:‘SonsofSorrow’(Emaeolian),‘Part‐ ingwiththeWorld’(F m),‘DeathlikeanOverflowingStream’(Em).N.B.The melodyofSacredHarphymnsisalwaysinthetenorpart.
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widelycovered‘suicidehit’,withitsone ( inbar6)and eight semitonegestures( inbars3‐4,11‐14),inadditionto itstypicallyaeolian descent( inbar6).40 Ex.25.BillieHoliday:GloomySunday(1941):vocalline,verse2;Gæolian
ThefateofRomeoandJuliet,alsoinvolvingsuicide,isanotheraeo‐ liantuneoftragedy(ex.26),withitsinitial ( ),its ( , bar3)andanextended descent( ,bars2‐3). Ex.26.NinoRota:ThemefromRomeo&Juliet(1968);Aæolian
Repeated motifsofanguisharenotuncommoninrockmusic either,asamplydemonstratedonthe of‘runaway’and‘pain’ inbars2and12‐13ofexample27. Ex.27.Aerosmith:Janie’sGotAGun(1989:4:04‐4:34);Fæolian
40. FormoreonGloomySunday,seethehomonymousWikipediaarticle[140201].
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Example 27’s young ‘Janie’, subjected to sexual abuse by her ‘daddy’,getsthegunofthesong’stitlesoshecan‘putabulletright through his brain’ and ‘run away‐ay‐ay from the pay‐ay‐ain’. In example28,Nirvana’sremarkableleadvocalist,KurtCobain,uses (a$-g)inamuchlowerregisterthanAerosmith’sSteveTyler (ex.27)toproducenotabitterlywailingaccusationbutsomething soundingmoreliketherepeatedlitaniesofsomeonetrappedinthe viciouscircleofadebilitatingdepression.It’scertainlyclosertoa suicidalGloomySunday(ex.25)thantothepassionate,primalyell‐ inginthechorusofSmellsLikeTeenSpirit(ex.196,p.287)orofLith‐ ium(ex.29).41 Ex.28.Nirvana:SmellsLikeTeenSpirit(1991,verse);Fæolian
Ex.29.Nirvana:Lithium(1991,chorus);Dæolian
(a$-g).
(f-e)
Lithiumcompounds(e.g.lithiumcitrate)areactiveingredientsin prescriptiondrugsusedtotaketheedgeoffbipolarextremes,to make mania less manic and depressive states less suicidal, so to speak.ShunningspeculationaboutCobain’sbipolarityasautobio‐ graphical ‘reason’ for the acutely expressed depression of the verses and impassioned anger of the choruses in Teen Spirit and Lithium,itisneverthelessclearthat gesturesinaeolianmelody arenotexactlyahappyaffairinrockmusic,howeverlife‐affirming theexpressionofthatangermaystrikeusaslisteners.42 41. It’sadepressionthat‘goesonandonandonandon’or‘roundandroundand roundandround’—HELLO,HELLO,HELLO,HOWLOW?Lithium’slyricsinclude theline‘SundaymorningiseverydayforallIcare’.Doeslife’sabsurdity becomemoretangibletoadepressedindividualonaSunday,duetoitsspecial statusasdayoftheweekaftertherevelsofFridayandSaturday(asinGloomy Sunday?)?That’snotthepointhere.Infact,pointlessnessmaybethekeypoint andFORALLICAREthekeyphrase;or,asheardinthetermsofGenerationX neartheendoftheTeenSpiritlyrics:WHATEVER!NEVERMIND!’
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Doesallthismeanthattheaeolianmodeisintrinsicallytragic,sad, suicidalorangst‐ridden?No! Ex.30.GodRestYouMerry,Gentlemen(Eng.trad.,cit.mem.)Daeolian
Ex.31.Arturov:AmurPartisanSong(mel.cit.mem.);Daeolian
Examples 30 and 31are entirely aeolian but neither is connected with gloom, doom, depression or anguish. God Rest You Merry, GentlemenproclaimshappinessfortheChristmasseason(‘letnoth‐ ingyoudismay’)andbrings‘tidingsofcomfortandjoy’,whilethe Russianpartisansarecelebratingvictory,thebraveryoftheirhe‐ roesandtheirsuccessfularrivalattheshoresofthePacific.43 Ex.32.Kaoma:Lambada(1989).Daeolian(
=
)
Moreover,although the lyricsof example 32 include crying over lostlove(‘choraraolembrardeumamor’),thesong’smainmessage, borneoutbytheofficialvideo’ssexydancingandcheeryfaces,is gettingoverthatsadnessbyfallinginloveagainanddancingin thesunshineonthebeach(‘dança,solemar’).Weareinotherwords alongwayfromChopin’sMarchefunèbre,fromGloomySunday.and fromtherockangstofexamples27‐29. 42. SeeAngerisanEnergy(Nehring,1997),aswellasAnti‐depressantsandMusical AnguishManagement(Tagg,2004). 43. Completetextofthepartisansong,inRussianwithtranslation,isat marxists.org/subject/art/music/lyrics/ru/po-dolinam.htm[140201].
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Howcanthesamemodebeassociatedwithsuchdifferentmoods? Threefactorsexplainthisostensibleconnotativeparadox,thefirst ofwhichtodowithspeedandmovement. AlthoughtheMozart,Beethoven,AerosmithandNirvanaextracts (ex. 21, 22, 27‐29) move at a moderate or brisk pace, the Chopin ( =50),BillieHoliday( =60)andRotaextracts( =84)areallquite slow.The‘MerryGentlemen’movemuchfasterinallabrevemetre ( =90)andtheLambadadancersatabrisk120bpm,buttheRussian partisans( =96)areonlyslightlyfasterthanRomeoandJuliet( =84). Thedifferencebetweenthemisoneofsurfacerate.Whereastheae‐ oliantuneforShakespeare’stragicloversrepeatedlypausesonsin‐ glenotes(therecurring‘ ’inexample26),theRussianpartisans inexample31keeponmoving( | | ).Butthatdoesn’t explainwhytheAerosmithandNirvanaexamplesareanguished butour‘happyaeoliantunes’(ex.30‐32)aren’t. Thesecondfactoristhewayinwhichthedistinctiveaeoliantraits, discussedinconjunctionwithexamples21‐29,aretreated.While the and semitones,the tritone,andthe de‐ scentarehighlightedinthoseextracts,the‘happy’aeolianexam‐ ples do not dwell on those traits. In fact the traits either do not appearatall—there’sno descentandno tritonein thoseexamples—or,asinthecaseof and ,theyaresim‐ plypassedoveraspartofthemelodicphrase’soverallprofile.44 Athirdfactoristhedifferenceintimbreanddeliverybetweenthe rock (ex. 27‐29) and the ‘happy’ examples. Neither listlessly re‐ peatedlitanies(ex.28),norguitardistortion,norfulldrumkit,nor theurgentyellingofasolomalevocalist(ex.27,29)isanywhereto beheardinexamples30‐32. Thefinalfactorisoneoftonalfamiliarityandculturalconvention. Ifyou’remostlyusedtothetonalityoftheeuroclassicalrepertoire anditswidespreaduseinvariousformsofpopularmusic,you’re more likely to assume that there’s some sort of automatic corre‐ spondencebetweenthetradition’ssimplemajor‐minorbinaryand theequallycrudebipolarityof‘happyv.sad’.45Ifyouhaveexperi‐ 44. The[a-]g>b ([Û-]Ô>$â)gestureinLambada’sbars4‐5isapossibleexception.
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enceofothertonaltraditionsyou’llbelessliabletomakesuchas‐ sumptions.46Toputtheaffectiveaspectofthemajor‐minorbinary intoperspective,it’sworthnotingthata2013pollamongreaders of Rolling Stone magazine asked to name their ‘saddest song’ re‐ vealedthatsevenofthetoptentearjerkers(70%)wereinthemajor key,thattwo(20%)wereinmixedmodes,andthatonlyone(10%) was in an unequivocally minor mode. The sadness perceived in those songs was therefore more likely to be a matter of lyrics, tempo,vocaltimbre,register,melodicprofile,articulationandin‐ strumentalrestraintandmuchlessofanissueofmajorv.minor.47 Moreover,thefactthatmosttunesinthecheery,glitzy2014Euro‐ visionsongcontestwereinaminormodesuggeststhattheMAJOR‐ MINOR=HAPPY‐SADbinaryisinsoreneedofrevision.48
Hypo’modes 49
Non‐diatonicheptatonicmodes So far I’ve presented the seven heptatonic ‘church’ modes, of whichsix—theionian,dorian,phrygian,lydian,mixolydianand aeolian— are on the radar screen of Western music theory. But there are countless other heptatonic modes in everyday use aroundtheworldthatarenot.Now,thisaccountcandonomore 45. Parloursong,hymns,nationalanthems,polkas,waltzes,tangos,musichall songs,andmostpre‐Kind‐of‐Bluejazz(Davis,1959)arealltypesofpopular musicwhosetonalityisbasically‘classical’(seeChapter8).Foramoredetailed discussionofproblemswiththeminor‐majordualismof‘happyv.sad’,see ‘Minor‐modemoods’,especiallythesections‘Sadness?’,‘Ethnicityandarcha‐ ism’and‘TheVirginian’sBritishminor‐modeconnection’,inTenLittleTitle Tunes(Tagg&Clarida,2003:307‐330);seealsoTagg(2013:264‐65,334). 46. Formoreabout‘minor=sad/major=happy’,seeTagg&Clarida(2003:307‐324), Parncutt(2012:passim)andTagg(2013:264‐5). 47. TheRollingStonesaddestsongpollisat rollingstone.com/music/pictures/readers-pollthe-10-saddest-songs-of-all-time-20131002 [140201].Major‐keysongswereI’mSoLone‐ someICouldCry(H.Williams,1949),SamStone(Prine,1971),Black(PearlJam, 1992),HeStoppedLovingHerToday(G.Jones,1980),Cat’sInTheCradle(Chapin, 1974),EverybodyHurts(REM,1993),TearsInHeaven(Clapton,1992).Themixed‐ modesadsongswereNutshell(AliceinChains,1994),SomethingInTheWay (Nirvana,1991).Theonlyminor‐modesadsongonthelistwasHurt(NineInch Nails,1994);anextractfromtheJohnnyCashversionofHurtisex.79(p.160). 48. EurovisionSongContest(Copenhagen), BBC1,2014‐05‐10,20:00hrs.
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thanaddressaverysmallsampleofallthoseothermodes.Given thisvasttonalvariety,Ihavechosentofocusonmodesthatmany Westernlistenersmaywellrecognisebutalsohearas‘different’or ‘exotic’,morespecificallyonmodescontaining (‘flattwo’)and/ or (‘sharpfour’)and/oranaugmentedsecond(scalestepof1½ semitones).Thesemodalfeaturesarecommoninmusicfromthe Arabworld,theEasternMediterranean,theBalkans,Greece,Tur‐ key and southern Spain. Tonality in that populous part of the world shares many common traits, even if terms and labels can varyradicallyfromoneareatoanother.50Forthesakeofbrevity, andforthesixreasonsgiveninfootnote51,51IwillusetheArabic wordmaqam( ;ﻣﻘـــﺎمpluralmaqamat/ )ﻣﻘﻤـــﺖtoqualifythatgeneral geomusicalpartoftheworldanditscommonalityoftonaltradi‐ tions.Tofurthersimplifytheaccount,Iwilllargelyavoiddiscus‐ sion of modes containing microtonal scale steps because their constituentnotesaredifficultorimpossibletoproduceonaWest‐ ernfrettedinstrumentliketheguitaroronapianokeyboard. 49. Thehypomodesection,basedontheGrovesentryonGlarean(Powers,1995: 406‐412),hasbeenwithdrawnduetounspecifiederrorsreportedinanemailto theauthorbyascholarofRenaissancemusic.Ispeculatedaboutexplanations ofbimodalityintheworkofHeinrichGlareanwho,inhisDodecachordon(1547), organised‘church’modesintothesystemfamiliartousersoftheiPhoneapp UnderstandModesandreadersofGuitarPlayermagazine(ftnt.19,p.98and guitarplayer.com [090718]).Mypointwasthatsincetonalconfigurationsinpopular musiccanshiftbetween,say,ionianandmixolydian,betweenaeolianand phrygian,etc.,itmightbeusefultoexaminemusictheorypredatingtheeuro‐ classicalerawithaviewtofindingmodelsoftonicalitythatdon’tputthe ionianmodeandV-Icadencesatthecentreofthetonaluniverse.Sincethis subsectionwaslargelyperipheraltoissuescoveredinthischapter,itsremoval doesnotaffectthemainnarrative.However,Iapologiseforanyerrorsitmay havecontainedandforanyconfusionthatitmayhavecaused. 50. Formodenameproblems,seePennanen(2008)andOrdoulidis(2011). 51. Thesixreasonsare:[1]It’sshort.[2]It’sArabic,alanguagespokenorunder‐ stoodbymanyinthemaqamworld.[3]It’saconceptclosetothesenseofmode usedinthischapter.[4]MusicalscholarshiphasalongtraditionintheArab worldandmaqamisacentralconceptinmusicmakingthroughouttheregion. [5]Non‐ArabiclanguagesspokenintheregionusetheArabicmaqamnamesfor severalspecificmodes(e.g.Hijaz/ ﺣﺠﺎزashicaz(Turkish),hitzaz/Χιτζάζ(Greek), Hidjaz/Хиджаз(Bulgarian).[6]MaqamiscalledmakaminTurkeyandBulgaria evenifit’scalleddromos(δρόμος)inGreece.
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Theaccountthatfollows,‘Maqamat,flattwosandforeignness’,isdi‐ videdintothreeparts.Thefirstofthese(pp.118‐149)isarudimen‐ tarytheoreticalintroductiontothemodalpracticesoftheregions enumeratedinthepreviousparagraph.Thesecondpartzoomsin onthemodesofflamenco(pp.132‐137)andoftraditionalmusic fromtheBalkans(pp.138‐149).
Maqamat,flattwosandforeignness Basicconceptsandtheory ‘MODE’,asdefinedearlier,isprobablytheWesternnotionclosestto the Arabic concept maqam (plural maqamat). The same word — makam— is used in Turkey (pl. makamler) and Bulgaria (макам), while the Greeks call it dromos (δρόμος = ‘road/way’, pl. δρόμοι). Whatever its name, a maqam, like a mode, designates a specific tonalvocabulary,typicallypresentedasanarrayofsevendifferent notes,usuallyarrangedinscalarorderinsideoneoctave.52Unlike amode,however,amaqamoctaveisunderstoodtoconsistoftwo parts,usuallytetrachords(p.122,ff.).Italsospecifiespivotaltones inthevocabulary,andisoftenconnectedtoacertainregisterorto aparticularstartingnoteortonicontheoud.53Moreover,amaqam containsrulesdefiningitsmelodicdevelopment:‘[t]heserulesde‐ scribewhichnotesshouldbeemphasised,howoften,andinwhat order’.54Finally,amaqamcanalsorelatetoparamusicalphenom‐ enathataremorenuancedthanthespuriousHAPPY‐V.‐SADdistinc‐ tionbetweenmajorandminormodesintheWest. 52. Somemodes,includingmanyTurkishmakamler,are,forreasonstoocomplexto explainhere,presentedincludingnotesabovetheuppertonic. 53. [1]Forexample,maqamBayati(ex.2infig.20)‘usuallystartsonD,butitcan alsostartonGandA.WhentransposingArabicmaqamat,musiciansmention thetonicnameafterthemaqamnameforclarity,e.g.“BayationG”’(maqamworld.com [140205]).Anotherexample:maqamHijazShadArabanhasthesamerel‐ ativescale‐degreeprofileasHijazKar( ,ex.5binfigure20)but hasgratherthand(orc)astonic.[2]Oud:luteusedinbothvernacularand learnedtraditionsofArabicmusic.Fretlessinstrumentsarewellsuitedto maqammusicbecausemicrotonescanbeproducedwithouthavingto‘bend’. 54. See maqamworld.com [140204].Therearemanymoremaqamatinrelativelylocal useinTurkey,NorthAfrica,Iraq,Iran,etc.Seepp.91‐93fortheneedtocon‐ sidertonalconfiguration,notjusttonalvocabularywhendiscussingmode.
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There are between thirty and forty maqamat in common use to‐ day.54Figure20(p.120)listsjustsixofthebasicmaqamfamilies andpresentsthenotesofatleastoneofthemaqamatbelongingto each of those six.55 Two modes in the Hijaz family are included (nos.5aand5b)togiveanideaofhowdifferentmaqamatcanbe‐ longtothesamefamily.56Figure20(p.120)existsinotherwords solelytohelpexplainandexemplifysomebasicprinciplesofmo‐ daltheoryandpracticeinthemaqamworld.57 Starting with traits familiar to Fig.18. MaqamRast individualsoutsidethemaqam world, Rast ( ) looks like the ionian mode, except that its and areneithermajornorminorbutbetweenthetwo(§ ,§ ). Fig.19. Λαϊκοιδρόμοι:popularGreekmodegeneratorapplet(screenshot)
WhenpopularmusiciansinGreeceuseRastwithoutmicrotones,it sounds exactly like the ionian or the ‘major scale’ (κλίμακα ματζόρε):it’sthemodeofbouzoukihitslikeZorba’sDance(Theod‐ orakis,1964).ThefactthatGreekmusicianstreattheionianasjust onemodeamongmanyisborneoutbythecontentsofnumerous onlinebouzoukitutors.ParticularlyinstructiveistheappletLaïkoi Dromoi(=PopularModes,fig.19).Itletsyouselectoneofthenine‐ teen(yes,19)popular‘scales’onoffer,includingmodes5a(Hijaz/ 55. Absentinfigure20:Ajam,AtharKurd,Jiharkah,Mustaar,SabaandSikah. 56. MissingHijazmaqamatareShahnaz,Suzidil,ShadArabanandZanjaran. 57. See,forexample maqamworld.com,theWikipediaarticle‘Maqam’andthe ΔρόμοικαιΤρόποιpageat kithara.gr. [140214]
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Hitzaz) and 5b (Hijaz Kar/Hitzazkiar), listed in figure 20 (ñ). You choose your tonic (‘Root’), click ‘Generate’ and the app reveals whichofthetwelvenotesinequal‐tonetuningyou’llneedtoplay onyourfrettedbouzoukiorguitartoproducethe‘rightnotes’. Fig.20. Asmallsampleofmaqamatwithtetrachorddesignation,scaledegrees, scalarstepsandalternativenames.
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Example2infigure20(p.120),MaqamBayati,alsolooksfamiliar. It’sapparentlyaeolian,exceptthatits is§ ,aquarter‐tonebelow aWestern .58AmoreobvioussimilarityisthatbetweenMaqam Kurd(nº6infig.20)andthephrygianmode.Theonlytroublehere isthatGreekscallmaqamKurd‘dromosOusak’,thatOusakisnot thesameasTurkishUşşâkmakamı,andthatdromosKiourdiisdo‐ rian.There’snoneedtomemorisethesemaqamlabellinginconsist‐ enciesbutawarenessofthemcanhelpavoidmisunderstanding.59 Fourconclusionscanbedrawnfromthesimpleobservationsmade sofar.Thefirstthreemayseemobviousbuttheyareimportant. [1]Theionianandaeolianarejusttwoofmanyheptatonicmodes. [2]Theioniancannotberegardedasdefaultsettingformusicsout‐ sidestandardeuroclassicalorjazztonality. [3]Atonalvocabulary(e.g.Rast,Bayati),neednotconformtothe pitches of Western tuning to be part of everyday tonality or to qualifyasamode. [4]Thefourthpointconcernsassumptionsaboutmodalconnota‐ tions. Three maqamat in figure 20 are traditionally linked to the followingthreedifferentmoods:‘distantdesert’;‘vitality,joyand femininity’;and‘pride,power,soundnessofmindandmasculin‐ ity’.BeforereadinguponthetopicIhadnoideawhichmoodIwas supposedtofeelonhearingmusicinthethreerelevantmodes.60If, likeme,youfeltitwascounterintuitivetolinkaminormodelike Bayati(nº2infig.20)withjoyandvitality,60thenyouwill,likeme, havetoadmittoadegreeoftonalmonoculturalism.Thepointis thatintuitionforonepopulation—e.gthatofindividualscondi‐ tionedtoreactwithanionianisedbrain—doesnotequatewiththe intuitive skills of all other human populations.61 Besides, as we sawearlier(pp.111‐116),theassumptionthatmajorishappyand minorsadishighlyquestionable,evenwithinourownculture. 58. Bayati and aresometimesgivenas§âand§ê(cf.Table6,p.80). 59. SeeOrdoulidis(2011)forfurtherinformationonthisproblem. 60. ‘Answers’:the‘distantdesert’isHijaz(no.5),‘femininejoy/vitality’isBayati (no.2)and‘masculinity’isRast(no.1).DescriptionsfromTouma(1996:43‐44). 61. Latin’sintūěor‐tūitus=toconsider,tonotice.Differentpopulationsaren’tpro‐ grammedtorespondtothesamemusicinthesameway.(Tagg,2013:69‐70).
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ReturningtotraitsofmaqamfamiliartoWesternlisteners,it’sclear thatmode3infigure20(p.120),Nahawand,hasthesamescale‐de‐ greeprofileasthe‘harmonicminor’ofeuroclassicalmusic(p.95). Inthattraditionit’stheleastlikelymodetobeusedmelodically, butit’scommonintunesfromtheBalkansandtheEasternMedi‐ terranean.Themelodyshownasexample33followsthescale‐de‐ greepatterngivenforNahawand(the‘harmonicminor’)— —,whichinAtranslatesasthenotes . Ex.33.Egyptiantraditionalsong;NahawandinA(1973)62
Nevertheless,unliketheharmonicminorbutliketheEuropeanme‐ lodic minor (fig. 14, p. 95), the scale degrees in many maqamat, makamleranddromoidifferbetweenascentanddescentintheup‐ perhalfoftheoctave,sothatthedescent( ) ,identicaltothe topfournotesintheaeolianorphrygianmodes,canoftenreplace the( ) heardbrieflyinbar3ofexample33.To illustrate this point, a common descending pattern for Rast is shownasexample1cinfigure20.(Notehow or§ inthemode’s ascendingtetrachord(lines1a,1b)becomes indescent(1c)). Tetrachordsandjins One significant difference between modes and maqamat lies in howtheoctaveisconceptualised.Withmodestheoctaveisgener‐ allyregardedasasingleunitbutmaqamatareadditionally,and perhapsmoreimportantly,understoodtoconsistofalowerandan upperhalf.Thedividinglinebetweenthetwoissomewhereinthe middleoftheoctave,mostcommonly(notalways)between and ,inwhichcasetherearefournotesbelow— —andfour abovethedividingpoint— .Eachsuchgroupoffournotes 62. ItranscribedthistunelisteningtoAbdul,Egyptianudplayerandresidentof Södertälje(Sweden),duringaworkshopatSÄMUS,Göteborg,in1973.
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iscalleda TETRACHORDorjins.63Giventhatjinsmeanstype,gen‐ der,natureorspirit,Arabmusictheorycategorisesmaqamatac‐ cording to their essence (type, gender, nature, spirit), i.e. their initialjins.That’swhytheexamplesinfigure20(p.120)arelisted bytheirfirsttetrachord.Forexample,HijazandHijazKar(nºs5a and5binfigure20)64arebothintheHijazfamilyofmaqamatbe‐ causetheirlowerjinsisalways not § (Rast),nor (Kurd),nor (ionian),noranyotherconfigurationof scaledegrees1‐4.So,howcanthejinsofArabmusictheoryhelpus understandeverydaytonality? Well, the human hand has one thumb and four fingers. If your thumbisundertheneckofalute,guitar,saz,bouzouki,violinor similarstringedinstrument,thatonehandcanplayamaximumof four different notes (five, a pentachord, if an open string is in‐ cluded)withouthavingtochangegrip,pattern,positionorstring. Thetetrachordencapsulatesinotherwordsoneshapeofthehand andfingers.Inmusic‐makingitrepresentsasingle,tangiblemo‐ mentorgesturethatcanfunctionasameaningfulunitofmusical structurewithaparticularcharacter,natureorjins. Twoofthemaqamatinfigure20(p.120)havethesamelowerand uppertetrachord(jins).TheupperjinsofRast(1ainfig.20)isiden‐ ticaltoitsloweroneinthat § involvesexactlythesamehand shapeas § ,i.e.1+¾+¾heptatonicstepsbetweenthefour notes. That’s why the maqam’s two tetrachords are both marked ‘Rast’: the upper jins is simply a fifth higher. The same goes for maqamHijazKar(nº5binfig.20).Since involvesexactly thesamehandandfingershape,onefifthhigher,as (½+ 1½+½heptatonicsteps),bothtetrachordsarelabelledHijaz,the lowerjinsinmaqamHijaz.Alltheotherexamplesinfigure20fea‐ tureanupperjinsthatdiffersfromthelowerone.Forinstance,the upperjinsinHijazitself(5ainfig.20)is (1+½+1),which 63. Thepluralofjins(singular,)ﺟﻨــﺲisajnās( )أﺟﻨــﺎس.Lowerandupperajnascan alsoeithermeetonthesamescaledegreeoroverlap.Insuchcasestrichordsor pentachordsmaybeinvolved. 64. ShadAraban,Shahnaz,SuzidilandZanjaranarealsointheHijazmaqamfamily butarenotincludedinfigure20(p.120),
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correspondsnottoitsownlowerjins( —½+1½+1)but tothe (1+½+1)patternofmaqamNahawand(fig.20,nº3) transposedupafifth.Conversely,theupperjinsofNahawand, ,involvesthesamemanualaction(½+1½+½)asthelowerjins inHijaz( ).HenceitslabellingasacombinationofNaha‐ wand(lower)andHijaz(upper)tetrachords. Thinkingintermsoftetrachords(ortrichordsorpentachords)in‐ steadofoctaveshasatleasttwoadvantages.Thefirstisthatital‐ lowsforthegenerationofmanymoreheptatonicmodesthanare familiarintheWest,especiallyifallthemaqamatinvolvingmicro‐ tones(notleastthoseintheSikahfamily)weretobeincludedinthe count.Theotheradvantageisthattetrachords(ortrichordsorpen‐ tachords)can,asweshallseelater(p.167,ff.),helpusmakesense oftonalityinWesternmusicsoutsidetheeuroclassicalsystem.
Hijazandphrygian Ex.34.MauriceJarre:LawrenceofArabia(1963);quasi‐Hijaz/KurdinD
If you ask a Western musician unschooled in maqam tonality to comeupwithsomething‘Arab‐sounding’,chancesarethathe/she will suggest something along the lines of example 34. In fact, to sound ‘Arab’ —or for that matter ‘Gypsy’, ‘Jewish’, ‘Balkan’ or even‘Spanish’—Westernmusicianswilltypicallyzoominondif‐ ferences between euroclassical tonality and that of the maqam world.Clearly,themoststrikingtraitsoftonaldifferencelieinall thosemaqamscalestepssmallerthanasemitone(§ ,etc.).Butthat differencecausestwoproblems:[1]weWesternersareusuallyun‐ abletocorrectlyintonemicrotonalpitches;[2]evenifwecould,the music would sound ‘off key’ to a Western audience. We conse‐ quently have to focus on differences we can produce and which soundsufficientlyforeignwithoutcomingacrossas‘outoftune’. That’salmostcertainlywhyLawrenceofArabiaandotherpopular WesternpastichesoftheMiddleEastfocusontwoelements:[1]the minorsecondor‘flattwo’( )ofthephrygianmode;[2]theaug‐ mentedsecond(1½‐tonestepbetween and )oftheharmonic
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minorscale( )whichcaneasilybetransposeddown afifthtotheintervalbetween and —theHijazjins.Atleast that’swhathappensinsilentfilmpieceslikeOttoLangey’sAmong theArabsandMauriceBaron’sVersl’Oasisinthe‘Oriental’section ofRapée’sMotionPictureMoodsforPianistsandOrganists(1924:496‐ 518).ThesametwotraitsarealsothrashedoutinAlfredKetèlbey’s ethnocentricclassicInAPersianMarket(ex.35)andinNightBoatTo Cairo(ex.36)whichreachednº6intheUKchartsin1980.65 Ex.35.Ketèlbey:InAPersianMarket(1920),bars27‐33;quasi‐HijazinE; .
Ex.36.Madness:NightBoatToCairo(1980);quasi‐HijazhexatonicinF; .
EvenDizzyGillespieusesasimilartropeinANightInTunisia,(ex. 37) where the E$7 chord’s (bars 1, 3, 5) aligns enharmonically withthe ( )inbar7.ButGillespiealsobreaksthetropebyem‐ phasising ( )inbars1‐2,3‐4and5‐6.That becomespartofa tetrachordleadingdowntothefifth, [ ]‐ =( ) ). Ex.37.DizzyGillespie:ANightInTunisia(1957);quasi‐NawaAtharand ‘GypsyHungarian’inD. [ ] .
Or maybe the Gillespie tune is in a variant of the ‘Neapolitan scale’?66Or,perhapslikeLawrenceofArabia,it’sanaggregateoffea‐ turesthatwehearastypicalfor,butthatmaywellbeforeignto, 65. Similar‘flat‐two‐sharp‐threethrashing’intheshapeofarelentlessI\$IIshut‐ tleoccursthroughouttheAsectionofNacioHerbBrown’s1933jazzstandard Temptation,whoselyricsconjourupimagesofadangerousfemmefatale.For moreaboutmusicalorientalisms,seeScott(1997).
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tonalpracticesactuallyinthemaqamworld.67Whateverthecase, there’sadifferencebetweenpalatabletonaltropesofforeignness forWesternersandthe‘foreignsounds’asthey’reusedandheard bythehomecrowdontheirhometurf.Consider,forexample,how thephrygianmode(maqamKurd)isusedbycontemporarypopular artistsinGreeceand Turkey.In Prigkipesa (ex.38),Malamas per‐ forms in dromos Ousák (maqam Kurd) but there’s nothing foreign aboutit.The ( )inphrygianEisneither‘milked’norotherwise dwelton,evenifitsnormalfunctionasdescendingleadingnote ( > )isclearinthemelodiccadenceattheendofthesong. Ex.38.SokratesMálamas(2005):‘Princess’;Ephrygian(δρόμοςΟυσάκ); inE= .
The > gestureisalsopresent,thoughlessprominently,as inexample39,atthewordsyillariağla,kiskanırrenginiandbaharda yeşiller.The isinthephrygianmelodiccadence ,the lowertetrachordinKürdimakamı( inB,bars4,8‐9).How‐ ever,inthissadsong,TurkishsingingstarSezenAksu68doesmake conspicuoususeof intheboldleapofafifth( = )forthe words düşler (‘dreams’) and ıçmiş (‘drink up’). By echoing the tune’sinitial ( )the establishes asthesong’stonal counterpoise(seep.161,ff.).Withsuchaboldgesturerepeatedat thestartoftherecording’svocalline,the inthe < gesturedef‐ 66. The‘Neapolitanscale’runs inD),i.e.a lowerKurdplusanupperHijaztetrachord.Twopiecesofcircumstantialevi‐ denceofferinsightintothe‘flattwo’fameofNaples,mostnotablyitsNeapoli‐ tansixthchord:[1]Naplesislessabout500kmfromTunis;[2]thecitystatewas underSpanishrulefrom1503to1714. 67. Forinstance,example37wouldraisetheissueofincompatibletetrachords. 68. ‘SezenAksuisthereigningpopdivaofTurkeywheresheenjoysasimilarstat‐ ureasdo…HarisAlexiou,AmáliaRodriguesorLataMangeshkarintheir respectivehomelands.’(‘Worldmusic’sitepage‘SezenAksu|SarkiSöylemek Lazim’,November2002; 6moons.com/worldmusic/sarki.html[140208]).
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initelydrawsattentiontoitselfbutitjustasdefinitelydoessowith‐ outconnotinganythingexotic,asinexamples34‐37. Ex.39.SezenAksu:Firuze(1982),2extracts;KürdîmakamıinB(phrygian); 69 =
Greece’sdromosOusák,Turkey’sKürdimakamıandtheArabmaqam Kurdareallbasicallythesameasthephrygianmodeassetouton pages101,105‐106and120(figure20,nº6).It’ssimple:thephrygian mode’suniquescale‐degreeprofileruns .Despite suchclarity,Westernerstendtouse‘phrygian’toqualifyanymode containing ,regardlessofwhetherthemodecorrespondstothe phrygianmaqamKurd( ),Hijaz( [ ] ), orHijazKar( ).Forexample,theYiddishadjective Freygish70qualifiesoneofthemostpopularmodesinKlezmermu‐ sic.Despiteitsname,itusuallydesignatestheHijazmode(exam‐ ples40,41),i.e.notmaqamKurd,notthephrygian. Ex.40.Idelsohn:HavaNagila(mel.cit.mem.);‘Freygish’,i.e.Hijaz; inE
69. Freetranslationoflyrics:Ifdreamsdrinkupyouryearswhenyoulookback someday,cry,Firuze,cry.Tellthemhowincrediblybeautifulyouoncewere. 70. AccordingtoHorowitz(1992),FreygishderivesfromthePhrygischofGerman churchmodeterminology.Thequalifierisinotherwordsbasedonthenearest tonalconceptinofficialmusictheoryofthetimethat,muchliketoday’scon‐ ventionalmusictheory,wasincapableofthinkingoutsidetheeurocentrictonal boxand/orwaseitherunableorunwillingtorefertoAraborOttomantradi‐ tionsofmusicallearning.Anythingwitha ,sotospeak,was‘phrygian’.
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ThisFreygishmode,71consistingofalowerHijaztetrachord( )andanupperKurdtetrachord( raisedto ),is extremelycommoninthemaqamworld.InGreece,forexample, it’scalledHitzas(ex.42)andinBulgariaHidzhaz/Хиджаз(ex.43). Ex.41.Beregovski’sSher(Klezmer);‘Freygish’,i.e.Hijaz; . inD=
Ex.42.HarisAlexiou[ΧάριςΑλεξίου]‘Ap’tonperasménoMárti’,bars9‐14; ΛαϊκέςΚυριακές(1976);HijazinA: = .
Ex.43.Ермалък/Ermálak(1992):Българи(=Bulgarians);HijazinB .72
Now,ErmalakmayhavechosenHijazandanadditivemetrebe‐ causethosemaywellbemusicalelementsthatBulgariansthem‐ 71. SeeHorowitz(1992)formoreonFreygish(a.k.a.AhavaRabboh)anditssub‐modes. 72. Thelyricsrun‘Wemaybepoorandshabbybutwedon’tbeg.We’resortof toughbutwe’renofools.We’rehardonsome,fairwithothers.We’refullof ideas.We’resmartbuttohowsmart?’MuchpopularmusicfromtheBalkansis intheaeolian,phrygianorhijazmode:seerecordingsby,forexample,Todor Kolev(Bulgaria),LepaBrena(Bosnia),SinanSakić(Serbia),orFinnishBalkan bandSloboHoro(1992)).
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selveshavelearnttoperceiveasdistinctlyBulgarian.Atthesame time, flat twos and augmented seconds are just as much a tonal traitofheavymetalasof‘Bulgaria’,anobservationjustasperti‐ nenttometalmusiciansErmalak(ex.43)astoIronMaiden(ex.44, p.129),Rainbow(ex.45)orMetallica(ex.46). Ex.44.IronMaiden:Powerslave(1984:0:00‐0:35,0:36,ff.);bars1‐2phrygian 73 inA,bars3‐7HijazKarinA:a b$ c# d e f g# a =
Ex.45.Rainbow:GatesofBabylon(1978:0:53‐1:01)riffinEHijazKar,15ma = .73 bassa:
Ex.46.Metallica:WhereverIMayRoam(1991),3:49‐4:03; mostlyHijazKarinE; =
Inextrememetalandinindustrial,flat‐twomodes,betheyphryg‐ ianorintheHijazfamily,becameastyleindicator.74 ‘Heavymetalwithoutaminorsecond?Itwouldbeunspeakable… Idon’tthinkitwouldbemetal.Itwouldbeasham.’75 73. AscitedinLilja(2009:174‐175). 74. SeeTagg(2013:522‐524)formoreaboutstyleindicators.Formoreaboutheavy metalmodes,seeLilja(2009)andReffett(2013).
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StartingwithHandOfDoom(1970b),BlackSabbathoftenexploited conventional links in Western music, including film underscore, between andabroadsemanticfieldvariouslydescribedasan‐ guishedfinality,claustrophobic,heavy,sombre,gloomy,dark,danger,un‐ settling, sinister, strange and foreign.76 As a style trait with such connotations,the tropewasalso embracedbybands like Venom (1982)andArchEnemy(2004),aswellasbymetalcelebritiesIron Maiden(1980,1984),Metallica(1984,1988)andMegadeth(1992). Thisappropriationcanbeseenasaprocesswherebythedark,dan‐ gerous ‘Other’ became the subject, albeit deeply alienated, still darkanddangerous,butnolongerjustanobject,orobjects,out‐ sidetheself.ThisaestheticwascharacterisedbytwoUKmetalmu‐ siciansinthefollowingsortofterms. ‘It’sstuffyourparentsdon’tlike’…’Alotofkidsthatlikeitarenot themainstreamtrendykids’…‘It’salsointense…withtheharmon‐ ic minor and the flattened second… ‘Unnerving’… ‘There’s too manyperfectcadencesallresolvinginpop’…‘Themajorscaleisall resolvedandneat’…‘Let’skeepitunresolved’…77
Themetalaestheticisinotherwordsquiteexplicit.Soareitstonal foundations,asillustratedhereinanonlineguitartutor(ex.47). Ex.47.ScaleexercisesinF Hijaz( ),example1inlesson‘Phry‐ giandominant’(sic)78formetalguitarists(Campese,2009)
75. UKmetalbassplayerPeteHerbertinterviewedin2009(S.Moore,2013:200). 76. CharacterisationsaretakenfromCooke(1959:78),Walser(1993:47),Collins (2002:375‐376)andS.Moore(2013:200,ff.).InthisparagraphI’mindebtedto Moore(2013)forheraccountofflattwosinmetalstyles.Collins(2002:374‐376) documentstheaeolianandphrygianasthemostcommonmodesinindustrial, citingoccurrencesof intracksbyEinstürzendeNeubauten(1989)andothers. 77. ‘Playingbluesypentatonicdoesn’tworkoverasinister[ ]riff’.Allquotesdis‐ tilledfromcommentsmadebyUKmetalmusiciansLukeRaynerandPeteHer‐ bert,interviewedin2009andcitedbySarhaMoore(2013:200,ff.). 78. Forcritiqueoftheterm‘phrygiandominant’,seepp.133‐133.
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Theinstructorexplainsthatthefirstscale(1a)isjusta‘3‐note‐per‐ stringpatternfor[thescale]inF ’while1b‘isacoolpatternIcame upwiththatbringsouttheexoticflavourofthescale’.Headds: ‘[Y]oucouldpicturethisastheregularphrygianscalewitharaised third.Itsoundsgreatplayedovermajoranddominantchords—it has a Spanish flavour. You can experiment by playing power chordsoffofeachnoteforamorerockapproach.’(Campese,2009)
PowerchordsonHijazscaledegreesarecertainlyafeatureofthe Bulgarianmetalrecordingwhosemelodiclineiscitedasexample 43,butthere’snothingSpanishaboutaBulgarianmetalpresenta‐ tionofBulgarians(Българи)toaBulgarianaudience.Itseemsthat theoldexotismisback,thistimeintheguiseofanglophonemetal aestheticsandintheshapeof‘Spain’ratherthanofJews,Arabsor Gypsies.True:SpainandGypsiesareHijazconnotationsthatstill needtobeaddressed,butbeforeconfrontingthatissue,it’sbestto summariseatleastoneimportantpointintheaccountsofar.No matterhowyouinterpretthemeaningsofflattwoinmetalandin‐ dustrialmusic,theconnotationsofexample48—alsoinHijazKar, justliketheMetallicaextract(ex.46)—haveintheirhomecontext nothingtodowithdarkness,danger,doom,norwithSpain. Ex.48.Misirloua.k.a‘SongoftheCrickets’(Afghanistantrad.,n.d).HijazKar 79 = inD;
Inotherwords,theconnotationsofflat‐twomodeslikeHijaz,Hi‐ jazKarandthephrygianvaryjustasmuchasthoseoftheaeolian; it’s down to other factors like speed, motivic gesture, phrasing, rhythmic‐metric framework, instrumentation, register, dynamics and articulation. Most importantly, though, it depends on how yourearhasbeenculturallyconditioned,asweshallseenext. 79. RecordedoffairfromSwedishRadiointhemid‐to‐late1970s.TheradioDJsaid itwas‘SongoftheCricketsplayedbytheKabulRadioOrchestra’.Itranscribed thetunein7/8justafterrecordingit.Itisofcoursethesamebasictuneasthe versioncalledMisirlou,recordedbyDickDaleandtheDeltonesin1963and usedinPulpFiction(1994).
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‘¡VivaEspaña!’ ‘Flat‐twoSpain’and‘flat‐twoGypsies’mustbeamongWesternex‐ oticism’smostexploitedmusicaltropes.‘Gypsy’isacorruptionof ‘Egyptian’(cf.Fr.égyptien/gitane)anditwasmainlythroughMus‐ limNorthAfricathattheRomacametoArabAndalusia,manyof them during the fifteenth century.80 Both before and after the Christian ‘reconquest’ (1492), the music of southern Spain in‐ cludedelementsfromtheMozarbicchurch,fromMuslimandJew‐ ish cantillation, as well as from the musics of the Morisco81 and Roma population. It was from this musical melting pot that evolvedthevarioustypesofsong,danceandguitarplayingthat wereidentifiedmuchlater—inthelateeighteenthcentury—un‐ dertheumbrellaheadingflamenco.82Thissyncreticmusicaltradi‐ tion came to signal Spanish otherness, at least in the heyday of non‐Iberiancolonialism,andhasdonesomoreorlesseversince, mostrecentlyinpicture‐postcardversionsthatsun‐seekingtour‐ istsfromthenorthcouldhearintapasbarsontheCostadelSolor ontheirstereoequipmentbackhome(ex.55,p.137).Thequestion hereis:whatflamencoelementsexistin‘everydaytonality’? According to Fernández (2004), flamenco tonality uses three modes: ionian, phrygian and ‘majorised phrygian’ (frigio mayori‐ zado,i.e.Hijaz).Giventhattheionianbecameinternationaltonal currencyineighteenthcenturyEurope,themostdistinctivetraits offlamencotonalitylieinitsuseoftwomodesbasedonmi(fig.21, p.133).Thefirstofthesetwomi‐modesispurelyPHRYGIAN.Itsdis‐ tinctivetetrachord ismostoftenheardinmelodicdescent 80. SouthernSpainwasruledbyUmayyads,Califsetc.inCórdobaandGranada from711to1492.TheRomanioriginallycamefromtheIndiansubcontinent. 81. SeeauthoritativeWikipediaarticleMorisco. 82. InthisaccountImeanby‘flamenco’bothflamencoheterodoxoandortodoxo(Ste‐ ingress,2006).Iapologiseformygrosslysimplifiedaccountofaverycomplex andcontestedsociomusicalhistory.BlasInfante(1933),forexample,under‐ linedthecentralroleofArabtraditionsinflamencoandquestionedtheimpor‐ tanceofRomainfluences.Cruces(2003)providesausefulhistoricalaccountof flamencomusic.It’sworthnotingthatthenotionofflamencoasrepresentingan exotic‘Other’firstbecamepopularintheearly19thcenturyamongthebour‐ geoisieinSpainandFrance(Steingress,2006).ThankstoDiegoGarcía(Oviedo/ Córdoba)andNanoBarrera(Granada)forhelpwiththiscomplexhistory.
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( = inE).Theothermi‐mode, HIJAZ,canalsobe called MAJORISED PHRYGIANbecauseofthemajorthirdinitsinitial tetrachord— .83Thisvariantismoreoftenheardinme‐ lodicascent. Fig.21. TheAndalusianmi‐modes
Before continuing this account, one common point of confusion abouttheflamencouseofHijazneedstobedisentangled.Thecon‐ fusioncomesfromjazztheoristswhocallHijaz(orthemajorised phrygian) the ‘phrygian dominant’ even though there’s nothing dominantalaboutit.It’samimode,notadohorfamode,northeio‐ nianisedharmonicminor,noranyothermodecontaininga .It makesnosensetoimplythatHijaz ( infigure21),usedinme‐ lodicascentto ( inE),canbecomea withoutchangingfroma mi‐modelikeHijazintoala‐modeliketheaeolian.Themimode’s tonic (I, in E) cannot morph into a dominant (V),the tertial triadonitsown isv°,notvletaloneV;norcanitsfourth(la,IV, inE)betransformedintoatonic(I),norits beconfused with , so that its becomes , at least not without the mode ceasing to be phrygian or Hijaz. Both ‘ ’ and ‘I’ mean one, the tonic,not orV(five).Thereisno‘dominant’inthesemodes.84 AmongothernamesusedtodenotetheHijazormajorisedphryg‐ ianarethe‘Gypsymajormode’,the‘flamencomode’andthe‘al‐ teredphrygian’.‘Majorised’ispreferableto‘altered’becausethe phrygiancanbealteredinmanyways(e.g.HijazandKurdinfigure 20,p.120).TheGypsylabelsareunclear,too,becausetherearesev‐ eralvariantsof‘major’and‘minor’carryingthe‘Gypsy’label(fig. 20).‘Flamencomode’isalsoconfusingbecausethereareatleast two of them (phrygian and Hijaz) and because the ‘mode’ is as 83. Hijaz(‘Hiyaz’inSpanish):seep.120and124,ff. 84. It’sasabsurdascallingtheionianmodedominantaljustbecauseits often ascendsto .Themelodicascent cannotlogicallybeadominantalfeature inonemodebutnotinanother.ConceptualisingHijazasadominantmodeis symptomaticofionianisedbrainsconditionedtoheartonaldirectionmainlyin termsofanticlockwisemovementroundthecircleoffifths(pp.256‐262).
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muchamatterofharmonyasofmelody.It’smoreconciseandless confusingtocallthephrygian‘phrygian’andthemajorisedphry‐ gian‘majorisedphrygian’orHijaz.Hijazisatleastamodethatfla‐ menquistaOscarHerrerothinkshisguitarpupilsshouldpractise onthelowEstring(‘15mabassa’inexample49). Ex.49.ÓscarHerrero(2004):FlamencoGuitar,EstudioN°19‐Ligados; repeatedHijaztetrachord
However,it’smorecommonforHijaztobeusedinmelodicascent andphrygianindescent,asdemonstratedinexamples50and51. InthelasttwobarsoftheEstribillodeZorongo(inE)theascending Hijaz ( )leadsto ( )butthephrygian ( )leadsvia ( ) downto ( ).IntheLiviana(in )therisingHijaz s( )areall followedbyfallingphrygian s( ).Thefinalmelodiccadenceon ‘muero’isofcourseentirelyphrygian ( ). Ex.50.EstribillodeZorongo;HijazandphrygianinE:Hijaz cending);phrygian ( ,descending).85
(
,as‐
Ex.51.Fosforito:Liviana(simplified);HijazandphrygianinG ; ( ,ascending);phrygian ( ,descending).86
Thealternationof and intheflamencomi‐modesisnotjusta melodicissue.It’satleastasmuchamatterofharmony,eventothe 85. Zorongo:AndalusiandancedocumentedbyGarcíaLorcainhisCancionespopu‐ laresespañolas.CitedinFernández(2004:46) 86. Rhythmicallyapproximatedandwithoutmicrotonalinflexionsintheoriginal transcriptionbyFernández(2004:72),basedonaFosforitorecordinginTodoel flamenco:delosfandangosalaMalagueña;ClubInternationaldellibro.Madrid, 1998,Corte17.Ihavefurthersimplifiedthetranscription.
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extentthatthesoundofamelodicmodecandependonthechords accompanyingit,asexplainednext. Example 52 shows the most common trait of flamenco harmony, the FLAMENCO or ANDALUSIAN CADENCE in E: iv-$III-$II-I = Am-G-F-E.87 Whilethechordon isbasedonthenotesofthephrygianmode andincludesaminortriad(iv = a-c@-e,notIV = a-c#-e),thefinal chordon ,thephrygiantonic,containsamajorthird,asintheHi‐ jaz mode: it’s I (e-g#-b) not i (e-g@-b). Thanks to the regular oc‐ curence of this cadence formula in flamenco music, the melody showninexample53canbeheardasphrygian.Evenifitcontains no itwould,ifaccompanied,beheardaboveaiv-$III-$II-Ica‐ dence(Gm-F-E$-DinphrygianD): ($ÊinD)wouldbepresent.87 Ex.52.Flamencocadencechords(Soleá) (Fernández,2004:100)
Ex.53.EstribillodeVito(bailepopularcordobés;cit.Fernández,2004:46).
Besides,thedescendingflamencocadencepatternisoftenahighly audiblestrandonthelowstringsoftheguitar,aswiththe bassnotes( )inthefinalbarsofexample54. Ex.54.JuanSerrano(2002):SevillanaIII;Ô-$Î-$Ê-Âdescent,bars5‐7.
So,whatdothe‘muchexploitedflat‐twotropes’of‘SpanishGyp‐ sies’ get wrong? They tend to shoot wide of the mark on many countsofrhythm,intonationandarticulation,buttheyalsomiss anessentialfeatureofflamencotonality.Onecaseinpointisthe 87. Phrygianharmonyisdiscussedonpages437‐445.Thechordsinex.52arenot justsimpletriads.Note:[1]theongoingtonicdrone( )soundingevenabove $III( asG6)and$II(FFasF^);[2]b@( )addedtotheinitialivtriad(Am*9) tohighlightthe ( )insoleáperformance;[3]anoptional / ( )addedto thefinaltonicchord(EasE*Y9)toproduceageneralsynthesisofthetonality.
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1970scharter‐tourhittranscribedasexample55(p.137).88Thefact thatitsbackingpatternsarethoseofapasodoble,whosestepsare associatedmorewithbull‐fightingthanflamenco,mayberelevant toitstouristcharacterbutnottoitstonalstructuration.Thetonal tourismistobefoundinthechordsequence .Inthekey of phrygian E, that progression would constitute an Andalusian cadenceiv-$III-$II-I,asinexample52or54. ThetroubleisthatYVivaEspañaisnotinphrygianEbutinthekey ofA(firstminorthenmajor).Therearethreereasonsforthisobser‐ vation. [1] The tune both starts and ends in A, not in E. [2] The chord hasanunmistakablydominant(V)functionwhenitoccurs at the half‐way, half‐cadence point on the first ‘España’ of the eight‐barrefrain,creatingtheI-V-V-Imatrixofperiodicharmony typical for so many non‐flamenco popular songs from northern Europeusingstandardtertialharmonyinordertosoundlikefla‐ menco.89[3]The[ ] sequenceofbars3‐4and7‐8isreplacedin bars11‐12bythechangeB7-EinwhichtheB7doesnotactasV to produceaperfectcadenceon astonic(I)butinitiatesatypical two‐stepII7-V7-Icircle‐of‐fifthsprogression,B7-E7-A,inwhichE isunequivocallydominant(V)tothe (I)thatcomesonthesubse‐ quentfirstbeatoftherefrain. intheAm-G-F-Esequenceisin otherwords$VI-VinA,not$II-IinE.90 88. TheSwedishlyricstranslateroughlyasfollows:[v1]I’vebeenonholidayin Marbella.Icanonlythinkanddreaminespañol.Myhome’snowmostlyinred andyellow.I’mstillnicelytanned.IwasturnedonbySpanishfieriness.I’ve adoptedtheSpanishtemperament.[Refr.]Thisisnowmymusic.VivaEspaña! Thisisromance.¡VivaEspaña!Sayitagain.¡VivaEspaña!ThisserenadeisMuy bien.¡Españaporfavor![v2]Itakemycastanetsoffthewallbecausethere’sgoing tobeflamencohere.It’llclatteronmyfloorwhenIdothoseupbeatheelsteps, olé!Whocaresaboutsillyoldpop?TheSpanishstyleknocksitforsix. 89. ThefirsttwobarsareonI,themiddlefouronVandthefinaltwobackonI. 90. AmoreseriousproblemwithYVivaEspañawasthatitwasreleasedwhenthe Francorégimewasstillputtingpoliticalopponentsinfrontoffiringsquads, twoyearsbeforetheestablishmentofdemocracyinSpain.Thesong( Leo Rozenstraten, LeoCaerts)wasfirstrecordedinDutch/FlemishbyBelgian vocalistSamanthain1971.The1973Vrethammarversionwastranslatedinto Englishandreachednumber4ontheUKchartsin1974.No‐oneseemstoknow whytheSwedishversionwasrecordedas‘EvivaEspaña’.
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Ex.55.SylviaVrethammar(1973):YvivaEspaña(v.1&2)88.
ItcouldbearguedthatBizethadsimilarproblemswiththetonal identityofflamencointheintroductiontohis‘GypsySong’from Carmen(1875);91buttheclearestinstancesof[ ] (aeolian) replacing[ ] (phrygian)areinstyleparodieslikeYVivaEs‐ paña,wherethefinalnoteandchordofthephrase,reachedviaa descentincludingtheminorthirdandminorsecondaboveit,isÛ/ V,notthephrygiantonic(Â/I).It’sinthiswaythat[Am-G-] Dm/F-E creates a half cadence in A harmonic minor, not a flamenco ca‐ denceinphrygianorHijazE.92Inshort,jazztheoristsandcreators oftouristflamencomusicsufferfromthesameproblem:bothseem unable to hear a final phrygian cadence as final. The ionianised brain is apparently conditioned to hear the phrygian tonic as a dominantleadingtoatonicinanother,non‐phrygian,mode.93
91. TheBizetpiece(Lestrianglesdessistrestintaient)startsinEminorwithan arpeggioandascendingmelodicminorscales(incl. and ),thenpassesvia through (samemelodicminorscalepatterns)and (majorscaleruns)toB. 92. ColePorter’sTheGyspyInMe(1934)includes s( )initsCminorverse. 93. Theissueofphrygiancadencesisdiscussedinmoredetailonpages437‐445.
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Balkanmodes Exotic‐mode Gypsies are clearly not just a Spanish affair. The ‘Othermodenames’columninTable11showsthat‘Gypsy’quali‐ fiesnotjustHijazbutalsoNawaAtharandNiavent,modesthat arealsocalled‘Byzantine’or‘Hungarian’and‘Ukrainian’.‘Roma‐ nian’,‘Bulgarian’,‘Klezmer’(even‘Jewish’)areotherethniclabels for similar modes, most of which contain an augmented second andallofwhichareassociatedwithsoutheasternEurope. TheleftcolumninTable11showsseven‘Balkan’modeswrittenin theGclefwith astonic.Scaledegreesappearbelowandtetra‐ chordnamesaboveeachmode.Tetrachordsarelabelledaccording tothefollowingprinciples.Iftheteatrachordalignswiththefirst fourscalestepsina‘church’modecomprisingtwoidenticaltetra‐ chords, it’s given that mode’s name. Otherwise, if it corresponds withthefirstfournotesoftherecommendedmodenameshownin column2,it’sgiventhatname.94 ThemiddlecolumninTable11showstheRECOMMENDEDNAMEfor eachmode.Recommendationsarebasedonthreeprinciples. [1]Amodenameshouldrespectthelearningofthosewhomake musicintherelevanttraditionandnotbesubjectedtothetonalas‐ sumptionsofjazz,euroclassicalor any otheralientypeofmusic theory. That’s why the mode labels draw on the Arab‐Ottoman‐ Greektraditions(maqam/makam/dromos)andavoidculturallyirrel‐ evantnotionslikethe‘dominant’.95 [2]Incaseswhereseveraladequatemodenamesexist,theshortest hasbeenchosen.96 [3]Nationalandethnicqualifiersareavoidedforthreereasons:[i] the same qualifier often applies to more than one mode; [ii] no 94. Consequently,aphrygiantetrachordiseither or ,dorian or ionian or Hijaz or .Nia‐ ventis butnot (!).Formoreexplanation,seepp.168‐169. 95. Forrejectionof‘phrygiandominant’asaviablemodelabel,seepp.133and 136.TheissueofFreygishisaddressedonpage127.Klezmernamesalsotendto belongerandmorevariablethanthoseofthemaqamworld;forexample,Mis‐ heberakh,Avhorakhamimand(Klezmer)BulgarishalldenotetheNikrizmode.
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modeisexclusivetoonenationorethnicgroup;[iii]ethnicidenti‐ tiesinmusicchange,asdotheirgeographicallocations.97 Table11.SevenEasternEuropeanmodescontaininga1½‐tonestepand/or RECOMMENDED
MODE
MODENAME
OTHER MODENAMES
incl. misleading labels Freygish,AhavaRabba,An‐ dalusian,dorico flamenco,fri‐ HIJAZ giomayorizado,phrygian domi½‐1½‐½‐1 nant (1), altered phrygian, ½‐1‐1 flamenco mode Freygish,Gypsy,Gypsy major,SpanishGypsy, HIJAZKAR Byzantine,doublehar‐ ½‐1½‐½‐1 monicmajor, ½‐1½‐½ phrygian dominant (2) NAWAATHAR Gypsyminor, Hungarianminor, 1‐½‐1½‐½ HungarianGypsy(1) ½‐1‐1 with scale steps
NIAVENT 1‐½‐1½‐1 ½‐1½‐½
Nagriz,Souzinak, HungarianGypsy(2), Spanish phrygian
NIKRIZ 1‐½‐1½‐½ 1‐½‐1
Romanian(minor),Ukrain‐ iandorian,Klezmer bulgarish, Misheberakh
Romanian(major), LYDIAN AdonoyMolokh, ‘acoustic’, 1‐1‐1‐½ ‘overtone’, lydian dominant 1‐½‐1 (no augmented 2nd) MUSTAAR 1½‐½‐1‐½ 1‐½‐1
Hungarianmajor
96. ForexampleGreekNiaventratherthanArabicNahawand.Anotherreasonfor usingGreeknamesisthatthemodestheydesignatearemostcommonly playedoninstruments(e.g.bouzouki)whosefretsarespacedinaccordance withthetwelvesemitonesofWesterntuning. 97. ‘Hungarian’and‘Gypsy’eachqualifythreedifferentmodeswhileNikrizisvar‐ iouslyqualifiedasGreek,Bulgarian,Romanian,Ukrainian,GypsyandJewish. Moreover,theboundariesofHungary,RomaniaandtheUkrainehavechanged radicallyinrecenthistoryandneithertheRomanortheAshkenaziare,asiden‐ tifiablepopulationsandforvariousreasons,famousforstayinginonespot.
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Thescale‐stepfiguresunderthemodenamesinTable11(p.139) give the number of tones between each of its scale degrees (½ = semitone,1=tone,1½=3semitones).Itshouldalsobenotedthat individualtonesinaparticularmodeareinpracticeoftenaltered accordingtomelodiccontext.Considerationofascentordescent andtheinclusionofmelodiccadenceformulaearetwosuchfac‐ tors,whilesometunescanbeamixtureoftwo(ormore)modes.98 ThethirdcolumninTable11containssomealternativenamesfor each mode. Problematic mode labels are in grey to indicate that theiruseisinadvisable.99 TheRomamayhavechosenorbeenobligedtoliveoutsidemain‐ streamsocietyinmanypartsofEuropesincetheirarrivalinsignif‐ icant numbers during the fifteenth century, but they were often valued for their musical skills. In Romania, for example, Gypsy musicians (țigani lăutari) were indentured to provide entertain‐ mentforthearistocracy.Sincethenineteenthcenturythey’vehad avirtualmonopolyonmusic‐makingatweddingsandfunerals.100 Klezmermusicians(klezmorim)oftentravelledandplayedwiththe lăutari,performinginbothsecularandspecificallyJewishcontexts. It’s therefore hardly surprising that Klezmer and Balkan Gypsy musicsharemanycommontonaltraits. 98. SeeSegelstein(2004)foranaccountofsuchmodifyingandmixinginKlezmer. Pleasealsonotethat:[1]insomeinstancesNikrizispresentedwiththeionian uppertetrachord( ),inotherswiththedorian( );[2]maqam Mustaar,thelastofthesevenmodesinTable11,ismicrotonallydifferenttothe mustaarmodeshownincolumn1(nosikahon = );[3]inconsistenciesof maqamnamingarefrequentbetweentheArab,TurkishandGreektraditions (e.g.ArabicNagrizasNiavent,notNikriz)andareaddressedonpage121. 99. Forproblematicmodenames,see:[1]explanations,p.138;[2]commentson Freygish(p.127);[3]critiqueof‘phrygiandominant’and‘lydiandominant(pp. 133,136,143‐149).Fourteensourceshavebeenusedformodenames:[1]Wiki‐ pediaentriesforArabmaqam,Gypsyscale,Klezmer,Makam,Mode;[2]ExoticGui‐ tarScales(2014);[3]300ScalesandArpeggiosforMountainsOcarina(n.d.);[4] FiddleStyles(n.d.);[5]Gypsy,Flamenco,Arabic,Klezmer,BluesWhistles…(n.d.); [6]Reffett(2003);[7]Horowitz(1992);[8]KlezmerMusicinaFewWords(2010); [9]Segelstein(2004);[10]MandolinandBouzoukiScalesandModes(2010);[11] maqamworld.com;[12]ΔρόμοικαιΤρόποι wiki.kithara.gr;[13]ΛαϊκοίΔρόμοι bouzoukispot.com/dromoi/;[14]Xamadoume(n.d.)[all accessed 140221]. 100.SeeWikipediaentryLăutariandRadulesco(2010).
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GypsymusicplayedanimportantroleinneighbouringHungary, notleastinthenineteenthcenturyamongmembersofthemiddle classwho,inawaveofnationalismundertheDualMonarchy,101 identifiedwhattheyheardinthemusicofurbanGypsyensembles asaHungarianratherthanAustrianorGermansound. Like the flamenco derivatives discussed earlier, it was a sound adaptedtoWesternearswhileatthesametimecontainingenough exotic elements to come across as ‘different’. Liszt’s Hungarian Rhapsodies(1853)didmuchtospreadthismusical‘Hungarianness’ aroundEurope.However,justasaBoléro,composedbyaFrench‐ man (Ravel, 1928), became international musical shorthand for Spain,itwasaSpaniard(PaulodeSarasate)andanItalian(Vittorio Monti)whoformulatedthemostpopularmusicalrepresentations ofHungaryanditsGypsyviolinists.102BothMonti’sCsárdás(1904) andSarasate’sZigeunerweisen(1878)startwithadramaticminor‐ keyrubatoepisodeinslowquasisenzamisuratempo(asinex.56) and end with a breakneck section that often contains an accel‐ erandopassage.103Super‐fastscalesandarpeggios(e.g.bars2,7in ex. 56), phrases played as harmonics, triple and quadruple stop‐ ping(bar4),left‐handpizzicati,glissandi,passagesontheGstring (‘sulG’inex.56),freneticsemiquaversetc.—areallkeyfeaturesof the style’s Romantic virtuosity. The most consistent tonal feature, however,isitsuseofthe HARMONIC MINOR(Nahawand),familiar enoughtourbanWesternearsbut,withitsaugmentedsecondbe‐ tween and ,exoticenoughtosignalthe‘Other’. 101. ‘DualMonarchy’:aphaseoftheAustro‐HungarianEmpire.Manynationali‐ tiesinsidetheblockresentedthepoweroftheAustrianaxis.Therewas,for example,a‘Hungarianliberalrevolution’thatoccurredin1848‐1849. 102. Monti’sCsárdásisstillperformed,alsobyHungarians,asapiecerepresenting Hungarianness.It’strack1ontheFerencSántaandhisGypsyBandalbum Csárdás(HungarianGypsyMusic)from1994,anditwasthehighlightata2010 Jubileeperformancefeaturingayouthwindbandandmajorettetroupefrom Hungary’ssecondcity,Debrecen( zx7zQvWWAQ[140222]). 103. Slowsenzamisuraintroductionfollowedbyallegro‐presto ,oftenwithan accelerando,isalsocommoninKlezmermusic.BothHavaNagila(ex.40,p. 127)andthevastlypopularminor‐keyRussiansongKalinkaareoftenper‐ formedwiththissortofaccelerando.TheaccelerandoinZigeunerweisenis markedbyseveral‘plusanimé’instructionsinthescore.
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Ex.56.Sarasate(1878)Zigeunerweisen(startofsoloviolinpart);harmonic minor(Nahawand)inC(bars5‐6): andinG(bars2‐3): .
The flashy run‐up in bar 2 of example 56, in G harmonic minor without ( ), contains the augmented second ( ) in threedifferentoctaves.That isevenmoreaudibleintheap‐ poggiatureandgracenotesoftheG‐stringpassageinbar3.Bars5‐ 6arelittlemorethananornamentedBJchordcontainingthedis‐ tinctiveaugmentedsecond )ofCharmonicminor. Swirling diminished chords, highlighted harmonic minor aug‐ mentedsecondsandsuchlikecertainlyrepresentedonecontempo‐ raryaspectofHungariannessinmusicbutitwasn’ttheonlyone. Bartókmodes ThroughextensivefieldworkamongpeasantcommunitiesinHun‐ gary,Romaniaandelsewhere,BartókandKodálycollectedrecord‐ ings of other, older music traditions from the region.104 Initially championedasmore‘authentic’thantheoftenslickandflashyur‐ banisedGypsymusicwhichhadinspiredLiszt’sHungarianRhap‐ sodies,Monti’sCsárdásandSarasate’sZigeunerweisen,Bartók’sand Kodály’sfieldrecordingshadasubstantialimpactoneverydayto‐ nalityinthetwentiethcenturybecausetheyinspiredthecreation of tonal alternatives to tired euroclassical tertiality, its Romantic chromaticismanditsdescentintoserialism.105Bartók’sownwork 104.Between1908and1914Bartókrecordedmusicinregionsofwhataretoday Hungary,Romania,Moldova,BulgariaandSlovakia.Togetanideaofwhere Hungarianslivedin1910(morethan50%outsidethebordersoftoday’sHun‐ gary)seemapat en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Trianon_consequences.png[140302].
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providesproofofthisnewtonalsense,notjustinhisarrangements ofthemusichecollected(examples57‐59)butalsoinhisowncom‐ positions(examples60‐61). Inhispianoarrangementofthetuneshownasexample57Bartók sticksmainlytoatonicdroneonb@.Inbars10‐13thedroneshifts tod,amovewhichchangesmodefromNIKRIZinBtoMUSTAARin D.Inthiswaythenotesb c# d e# f# g# become â Â #Ê #Î #Ô [Û]. Ex.57.Bartók(1915).‘Topogó’fromSixRomanianDances(cit.mem.,shown anoctavelower);hexatonicNikrizinB: .
ThemainharmonicswitchusedbyBartókinexample58isfrom HIJAZinAtoeither$Ê/b$or$ê/g($IIorvii—B$/Gminbar3and bars5‐7),themostusualpointsofcounterpoiseinHijaz.106 Ex.58.Bartók(1915).‘Bucsumítánc’SixRomanianDances;HijazinA(ex‐ . cept ,b.5‐6):
In example 59, a Hungarian bagpipe tune arranged for piano, there’s no change of drone note. It’s entirely in the LYDIAN FLAT SEVENMODEwhichconsistsofalowerlydianandanupperdorian tetrachord( + ).Jazztheoristsoftenrefermislead‐ inglytothismodeasthe‘lydiandominant’butit’snomoredomi‐ nantalthanHijazwithitsequallyerroneous‘phrygiandominant’ 105. SeeRedefiningHungarianMusicfromLiszttoBartók(Hooker,2013). 106. WithatemporaryswitchtoG( )inHijazA([ ] ),themode momentarilychangestoNikriz— .Theequivalentmodeover B wouldbe i.e.Mustaarwithanionianuppertetrachord.
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label.107 The mode in example 59 just can’t be ‘dominant’ if the bagpipedrone( )isthetonic! Ex.59.Bartók(1916):PianoSonatina,I(‘Dudások’[=bagpipers]),b.5‐8;lydian inD; = .
Example60presentsaneasilyrecognisablescalarinstanceofthe lydianflatsevenmodeinBartók’smusic,whileexample61shows thesamemode(orisit?)atthestartofoneofthecomposer’sbest knownworks. Ex.60.Bartók(1937)SonataforTwoPianosandPercussion;lydian =
inC;
Ex.61.Bartók(1939)DivertimentoforStringOrchestra(I),b.2‐8; NikrizinF; =
UsedassignatureforclassicalmusicbroadcastsonUSPublicServ‐ ice TV,108 the opening theme of Bartók’s Divertimento contains many ‘fun’ elements (divertimento = entertainment, amusement). Aside from its rhythmic jokes, the extract contains elements of tonalfunthatneedsomeexplanation. Example61isprecededbya barofrepeated Fmajor triads that shuttle momentarily to G major ( ) and back. That chordal accompaniment chugs along with its repetitions for 107. Forcritiqueof‘phrygiandominant’seepp.133,138,152. 108. Heard/seenon MountainLakePBS( Plattsburg,NY;Montréal,2006‐09).
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thefirstminuteortwoofthepiece,stickingto inbars1‐3and 5.Withthatongoingchordalshuttleand asthemaintheme’s firstthreenotes,thelydianmodeisclearlystated,atleastuntilthe appearanceof ( )inbar2( isn’theardagainforsometime). Bearinginmindthat ( )ispresentintheaccompanyingFma‐ jorchords,andthatthenotecombination ‐ ( )isheard threetimesinbars2‐3,thelydianflatsevenmodeisclearlyestab‐ lished— = .Thattonalperceptionis brokenbybar4’sheld ( , ),thepiece’sfirstmelodicthird ofanysort.Thechordchange attheintroductionof in themelodyissuchstandardprocedureforabluesinF(seeex.62, p.147,bar2)thatlistenersmightbeexcusedforthinkingofGersh‐ win, but three beats or two seconds later (bar 5) we are back in lydianflatsevenmode.The‘joke’isthatthemelodyisnotinthe lydianflatsevenbutintheNikrizmode— —whiletheaccompanimentconsistsofchordsbasedon majortriads( ).Twoconflictingtypesoftonality—the , , ofNikrizandWesternchordsbasedmajorcommontriads— collidetoproduceatonalhybridwhose‘incongruity’must,atleast at the time of its first performance, have seemed new, dynamic and,hopefully,amusing(divertente). AnalyticaldetailofafewbarsbyBartókmayseemincongruousin abookabouteverydaytonality,butitishighlyrelevanttoimpor‐ tantchangeinpopulartonalidiomsduringthetwentiethcentury. ThebriefallusiontoGershwinafewsentencesagohintsatwhere thisnarrativemightbeheading. In a short advertisement for an upcoming 2009 performance of Gershwin’sPianoConcertoinF(1925)andBartók’sConcertofor Orchestra(1943),amusicjournalistontheLasVegasSunwrote: ‘ThepairingofGeorgeGershwinandBélaBartókmighthavesome Las Vegas Philharmonic ticket holders scratching their heads. A jazz‐influenced Broadway composer and a Hungarian composer withabackgroundinethnomusicologydoesn’tatfirstseemalike‐ lycoupling.ButDavidItkin,musicdirectorandconductor,sayshe selected [the] program as a way to pair two very accessible 20th centuryworksthatwon’tturnaudiencesaway.’109
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Now, although Bartók may have heard Gershwin’s music before writinghisDivertimento(1939),andalthoughhementionsGersh‐ win’sinfluenceonMikrokosmosnº151,thepointhereisthatacen‐ tralaspectofBartók’stonalidiom—theincorporationofEastern European‘folk’modesintohisownwork—exertedinfluencein theoppositedirection.NotonlywerehisContrasts(1940)commis‐ sioned and performed by Benny Goodman; also, such figures as ChickCorea,RobertFripp,HerbieHancockandFrankZappahave alltestifiedto,orpracticallydemonstrated,Bartók’sinfluenceon them.110TheobviousquestioniswhytheygoforBartókinsteadof, say,Britten,Nono,Shostakovich,Stockhausen,WebernorXenakis. PartoftheanswermaywelllieinBartók’suseofmetre,rhythm andpercussivearticulation;butjustasimportantishistonalidiom thatdrawsonthefieldrecordingsmadeearlierinlife.Oneobvious traitistheusuallytonicalbasisofhismusic,butthat’snottheonly, northemostimportantrelevantcharacteristiclinkingBartók’sid‐ iomwithan emergingNorthAmericansenseoftonality thatin‐ cluded the blues. Example 62 provides a clue to how this link works.It’sasimple,standard,right‐handpianofigureforaccom‐ panyingaswung( )bluesinFatthepointofitschangefromF(7) toB$(7).Includingitsgracenotes(the and smudgeses‐ sentialtobluespiano),thetotaltonalvocabularyofexample62is orscalesteps inF. Considered enharmonically and excluding the perfect fourth ( , ),allthosescaledegreesarecontainedeitherinthe NIKRIZorin theLYDIANFLATSEVENmode,bothofwhichcontain . (The only difference is : in Nikriz, in lydian flat seven). 109. From‘Ifyougo’byKristenPetersonintheLasVegasSun,19November,2009. 110. [1]AnAmericaninParis(1928)wasperformedacrossEuropein1929‐30(Wiki‐ pedia:‘Gershwin’[140225]).[2]#151is‘DanceinBulgarianRhythm4’inMikro‐ kosmosvol.6(1940).[3]Gillies(2007)notes:‘[j]azzpianistAndreaKeller observedthatBartók’sMikrokosmospiecesappearasif“arrangedforjazz ensemble”’(seeher2003CDMikrokosmos);and,reChickCorea’sTrioMusic, ‘theeffectisoftenmorelikeBartókthananythingelse’—Bartók’s‘Ostinato’ (1940)wasarrangedandperformedbyChickCoreaandHerbieHancockin 1978.[4]ForBartók’sinfluenceonKingCrimsonguitaristRobertFripp,see Hage(1999).[5]‘[Among]Zappaʹsfavorite[s]…wereBartókʹs…PianoCon‐ certos(ZappaWikiJawaka,n.d).
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Moreover, both modes are used extensively by Bartók and both bearmoresimilaritytothebluestonalitydiscussedonpages162‐ 167thantoionian,ionianisedorother‘dominantal’configurations. Ex.62.StandardbluespianomotifsinF(overFandB in )
Bartók’sinfluenceoneverydaytonalitycanalsobeunderstoodin a widersensebybrieflyreturning tothe Bartók‐Gershwinissue, because both composers worked on a similar task. Each of them developed,indifferentwaysandusingdifferentrawmaterials,a tonalidiom,includingharmony,thatwasbasedonandcompatible withtheruralorurbanpopularmusictraditionsthattheyenjoyed andrespected,butwhichwereabsentintheinternationalconcert musiccultureoftheday.Thesedevelopmentstookplaceatatime ofcrisisineuroclassicaltonalitywhenchromatictertialityhaddis‐ appeared from the tonical radar screeninto serialism, and when thegapbetweenthe‘classical/serious’and‘popular/trivial’poles ofWesternmusicallifewasatitsmostextreme.Insteadoffalling intotheradicalisttrapofmusicalexperimentalismbyrefiningseri‐ alism, introducing stochastic or aleatoric techniques, etc., they adoptedamoreradical,notradicalist,tonalstrategybyfetchingin‐ spirationfromthe‘popular/trivial’,i.e.fromthemusicofthelower classes.GershwindiditasaBroadwaycomposerinfluencedbythe bluesandpre‐bebopjazzofAfricanAmericans,BartókasaHun‐ garian composer‐cum‐ethnomusicologist and fan of the modes andrhythmsheknewsowellfrompeasantcommunitiesinHun‐ gary,RomaniaandBulgaria.There’ssomethingintrinsicallydemo‐ craticandinclusiveaboutthisprocess,evenatthepracticallevelof music making because one Bartókian solution to the problem of harmonising melodies incompatible with euroclassical tonality was,aswesawinexamples57‐58(p.143),tousechangingdrone pointsandquartalharmony.Asweshallseelater(p.348,ff.),this can be an effective strategy when putting chords to melody in othertonalitiesthanthatoftheionianandionianisedmodes.111
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BeforeabandoningtheBartókconnectionit’sworthnotingthathis tonalaesthetichasbeenadoptedincertaintypesofcontemporary popularmusicinHungary.Whetherornotthatisduetotheinclu‐ sionoftheBartók‐Kodályheritageinthenation’sschoolmusiccur‐ riculumduringtheperiod1945‐1990isanissuebeyondthescope ofthisdiscussion.Sufficeitheretosaythatexample63,inbreak‐ necktempo(212bpm)andtheNIKRIZmode,shows(includingre‐ peats)sevensecondsofa2011performanceattheBudapestTanc Ház (= House of Dance). Judging from the YouTube video from whichtheexampleistranscribed,itwasaverypopularoccasion. Ex.63.IstvánPál(2011):Elhunyttáncosbarátainkemlékére(1:07‐1:14, roughtranscr.);NikrizinD: .
Example64isevenmoreremarkablebecauseit’sperformedbyan urban Gypsy ensemble (violins, bass, cimbalon, etc.) that only a fewdecadesearlierwouldhavealmostcertainlyofferedareper‐ toireoftheCsárdástypedescribedonpages141‐142. Ex.64.TivadarMészáros(1984):KókaiRezső/VerbunkosRhapsody(at1:54; roughtransr.)NikrizinC:
ReturningfromNikriztotheLYDIANFLATSEVEN,itshouldbenoted thatthemodeisnotexclusivetoEasternEurope.It’salsoidentified byBrazilianmusiciansastheEscalanordestina,i.e.amodeassoci‐ atedwithtraditionalmusicfromtheBrazilianNortheast(ex.65).
111. Theproblemsofharmonisingtraditionalmusicwerenotnew,eveninBartók’s day.Forexample,Surenne(1854:v)remarksthat‘[t]hepeculiartonalityof many[…]Irishairshasbeenalteredbydifferentarrangers[…],inorderto forcethemintoaunionwiththemodernsystemofharmonyandaccompani‐ ment.Consequently,theoriginalityoftheairshasbeendestroyed,andonlya badandheterogeneouscompoundproduced’.
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Ex.65.JoséSiqueira(1949):Segundacantoriadecego;lydianflatseveninA: (citedbyCamacho,2004:172).112
The lydian flat seven mode even occurs in cheerful, widely dif‐ fusedmediamusicfromtheUKandtheUSA.Citedintruncated formonpage106asfamiliarexamplesofthelydianmode,thetwo themetunescitedmorefullyasexamples66and67demonstrate thatthelydianflatsevenmodeisnotjustspecifictoruralregions oftheBalkansorNortheasternBrazil.113 Ex.66.BrianFahey(1960):ThemeforBBCPickofthePops;lydian inC; = (exceptHijazcadence,b.8).
Ex.67.DannyElfman(1989):TheSimpsonstheme,lydianflatseveninC; =
[textcontinuesonpage150] + LYDIAN b7 END marker *BALKMODES X-REF
112. Ex.65isfromaSiqueirapianocompositionbasedonthestreetchantsofblind beggars,inparticularadesafiosungbyRouxinolandChicoPequeno(Cama‐ cho,2004:174,citingCarvalho,1979:37). 113. It’sconceivablethatexamples66and67mayshareassociationsofcheerful quirkinessbutthatmightbedowntotheirtempo,rhythmicconfigurationand ‘jumpy’melodicprofileratherthantothelydian 7mode.
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Summaryin14points [1]Amodeistheresultofdistillingatonalvocabularydowntoa set of individual occurrences of its constituent tones. These are normally arranged in ascending scalar order and delimited by scaledegree1( ,thetonic)atthebottomandtopofoneoctave. [2]Manytraditionsofmusicallearningconceiveoftheoctaveas consisting of seven basic scale degrees, several of which —typi‐ cally and butalso and —arevariableinpitch. [3]Thedistinctivecharacterofamodeislargelydeterminedbyits uniquescaledegreeprofile,e.g. (ionian), (Hijaz).Evenso,musicinthesamemodecanvaryquite substantially in mood and character depending on which of its constituenttonesareusedinwhichway,aswellasonothermusi‐ calfactors(see‘Aeolian’,pp.109‐116). [4]SixheptatonicdiatonicmodesareincommonuseintheWest: ionian, dorian, phrygian, lydian, mixolydian and aeolian. These sixmodesallcontainaperfectfifthandconsistoffourscalarsteps ofawholetoneandtwoofonesemitone.Thelocrianislesscom‐ mon,exceptinheavymetalmusic. [5]Theionian,lydianandmixolydianarecalled‘major’modesbe‐ causetheycontain ,thedorian,phrygianandaeolian‘minor’be‐ cause of their . The notion that major modes are happy and minormodessadisquestionable. [6]Theionianmodehasequivalentsinmanymusicculturesbutno prideofplaceamongothermodesinthosetraditions. [7]Avastnumberofheptatonicmodesexistinadditiontothesix orsevenmorefamiliartoWesterners.Manyofthoseotherhepta‐ tonicmodesarenon‐diatonic.NineteenGreekdromoiandatleast thirtyArabmaqamatareinpopulardailyuse. [8] Many modes in the Arab and Ottoman traditions contain pitchesincompatiblewithWesterntuningsystems,e.g.e§,¾‐tone above ,¼‐tonebelow and¾‐tonebelow . [9]Amaqamoctaveisoftentheorisedasacombinationoftwotet‐ rachords.Thisaspectoftonaltheoryisusefulintheunderstanding ofmanytypesofmode.
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[10]Modescontaining or and/orascalestepofanaugmented second(1½tones),asinthe‘harmonicminor’(Nahawand)andHi‐ jaz,areextremelycommonintheArabworld,theBalkans,Greece andTurkey.HijazisalsocommoninAndalusiaasoneofflamenco music’stwomimodes. [11]Theaugmentedsecondinterval(1½tones)andthescalede‐ gree havebeenusedintheWestasstereotypicalsignalsofare‐ markably wide variety of ethnic ‘Others’, most notably Arabs, JewsandGypsies,thelatterfromboththeBalkansandsouthern Spain. [12]Thephrygianistheonlydiatonicheptatonicmodetoinclude ,andtheharmonicminortheonlyeuroclassicalmodetocontain anaugmentedsecond. [13]Thelydianflatsevenmode,foundintraditionalmusicfrom Romania, and as used by Bartók, has tonal similarities to blues modes.ItisalsocharacteristicofmusicfromNortheasternBrazil. [14] ‘Phrygian dominant’ and ‘lydian dominant’ are misnomers. Westerners raised on a tonal diet of V-I in the ionian mode and whofailtohearafinalcadenceinthephrygianorHijazmodesare effectivelydeaftothephrygiantonic.Similarly,musicinthelydian flat seven mode cannot morph into another mode with another tonicbybeingthattonic’s‘dominant’withoutthemusicceasingto beinlydianflatseven!
Onelastpoint No‐onecanpossiblyhearalldifferenttonalvocabulariesaswould amemberoftheirhomeaudienceand,ofcourse,there’snothing moredestructivetoalivingmusicaltraditionthantoinsiston‘au‐ thenticity’atallcosts.MyremarksaboutpiecesliketheLawrenceof Arabia theme, Zigeunerweisen and ¡Y Viva España! are in other wordsnotintendedas‘put‐downs’ofthosepiecesbutasawayof drawingattentiontowhataWesternlistenermightbemissingin termsofmusicalvarietyandrichnessiftouristicimpressionsare allowedtocloudinsightsthatmighthavesomeculturaldepth,or evenbefun.I’mclearlynoopponentofhybridisationorthemixing ofstyles.IfIwere,Icouldn’thavewrittenwithsuchenthusiasm
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aboutGershwinorBartókandtheirdevelopmentofviabletonal idioms in the twentieth century by bringing together apparently incompatiblestylesofmusic.However,asamusiceducatorkeen toensurethatmystudentscanfindmusicalinspirationandinter‐ estinaswideavarietyoftraditionsaspossible,Istronglyobjectto labels like ‘phrygian dominant’ and ‘lydian dominant’ because they belong to a terminology and attitude which assumes that othermusicaltraditionscanbeforcedintotheconceptualgridof euroclassicalorconventionaljazztonality.Afterall,themusicians who actually use those modes un‐exotically in other cultures as partoftheireverydaytonalityhaveperfectlyadequateandmuch shorter names for the same phenomena —Hijaz ( إﺟــﺰ, Χιτζάζ, Хиджаз,Hicaz,etc.)forexample.Thoselabelsdenotetonalprac‐ ticesthathavenothingtodowith‘dominants’andtheunstoppa‐ blemarchofchordsanticlockwiseroundthecircleoffifthstoreach afinal‘perfectcadence’.It’sforthesereasonsthatIfindtermslike ‘thephrygiandominant’notjustmisleadingbutalso,quitefrankly, disrespectfuland,ifnotarrogant,atleastignorant. Ifyoufindmyanti‐ethnocentricinvectiveunconvincing,whynot tryasimpletwo‐partthoughtexperiment?Firstimagineyourfa‐ vouriteionian‐modetuneasthebuttofanEgyptianparodycalled ‘Western Baby’, played in the ‘out‐of‐tune’ maqam Rast and con‐ taining wrongly placed V-I cadences plus seemingly pointless switchesofkeytothedominant.Thatcouldinitiallybequitefunny becauseit’sunusualforparodytogoinourdirection,butthejoke wouldprobablywearthinwithtime. Thesecondpartofthethoughtexperimentiseasier.Justputyour‐ selfintheshoesofsomeonelivinginaMuslimtown.Howmany timeswouldyouhaveheardsomethingresemblingexample68(p. 153)proclaimedfromyourlocalminaret?114 114. Ex.68isaroughtranscriptionofcalltoprayerchantedbyMuʹezzinSheikh NajiQazaazin2013( maqamlessons.com/analysis/adhanhijaz.html [140213]).Various onlinesourcesgiveRastandHijazasthemostcommonmaqamatforadhan (a.k.a.‘azaan’).Bayati,NahawandandSabaarealsomentioned.30years× 365.25days=10957.5adhansinHijazmode.
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Ex.68.Morningadhan(calltoprayer),Al‐Aqsamosque,Jerusalem(2013) *
Ifit’syourthirtiethbirthday,iftherearefivecallstoprayerevery dayandifHijazisoneofthefivemostcommonmodesusedbythe localMuʹezzin,you’llhaveheardthatsortoftonalstatementonce aday.114Thatmakes11,000hearingsofsomethinginamodethat Westernersfindabitstrange.Regardlessofwhetherornotyou’re adevoutMuslim,it’sjustasmuch,ifnotmore,tonal‘home’toyou inyourhometownthanistheBBCNewsjingletoanavidwatcher ofcurrentaffairsbroadcastsonUKTV.Ijustthinkweshouldtry and understand the music of elsewhere from the ‘hearpoint’ of thoseforwhomelsewhereishome,notjustthroughourowncul‐ turallyconditionedears.It’salsomorefunthatway. **** END MARKERS X-REFs & INDEX ¡DO NOT DELETETHIS TEXT ! (YET)
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4.Non‐heptatonicmodes Ifmodescontainingsevendifferentscaledegreesareheptatonic, eight‐note modes are octatonic, six‐note modes hexatonic, those withfivepentatonic,whilefour‐andthree‐notemodesaretetratonic andtritonic.Now,eventhoughthemostpopularpentatonicmodes aresometimescalled‘gapped’becausetheycontaintwoscalesteps largerthanthoseofthe‘church’modesofChapter3—dohrémisol laandladohrémisol,forexample—theyarenomoreincomplete oremptythantheoctatonicstarttoexample69canbeconsidered clutteredorcrowded.1 Ex.69.Vigneault/Rochon(1973):Jechantepour(octatonicopeningphrase)
Thepointisthatthemostwidespreadconventionfornumbering scaledegrees(inEurope,theArabworld,India,Java,China,etc.) is,aswe’veseen,heptatonic.So,whenexpressionslike‘thirdless hexatonic’occurinthischapteritdoesnotimplythatthemodeis inanysensedeficient:it’sjustamatterofusingaquasi‐globalcon‐ ventiontodesignateaparticulartraitofthemode.
Tritonicandtetratonic Tritonic and tetratonic tunes are common in many parts of the world, not least in traditional music from Micronesia and Poly‐ nesia,aswellasamongtheMāori,theInuit,theSamiandNative Americansofthegreatplains(ex.70,p.156).2Tetratonicmodesare also found in Christian psalm and response chanting (ex. 71), while the sound of children chanting tritonic taunts can still be heardinplaygroundsinmanypartsoftheworld(ex.72). 1. 2.
InDthatonebar( )contains .SeeRochon (1992)foranaccountofhowthatoctatonicsinglebarcameabout. NativeAmericanmusic,seeMerriam(2011:325)andNettletal.(2001:§2(ii)); MāoriandPolynesian:McLean(1996:296,ff.and1976:144‐148);Samimusic: Eerola(2004:2);Inuitmusic:Johnston(1976:150, 161).
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Ex.70.CreeIndianducksong(tetratonic:
)3
Ex.71.Psalmtone2(quasi‐tetratonic:c d [e] f g)4
Ex.72.Children’stritonictauntingchant(
)5
Andit’snotasiftritonicandtetratonictunesareexclusivetochil‐ drenortopre‐industrialtimesandplaces.Forexample,thelead vocalsofbothSweetHomeAlabama(ex.73)andDaDooRonRon(ex. 74)areentirelytritonic. Ex.73.LynyrdSkynyrd:SweetHomeAlabama(1974);
Ex.74.TheCrystals:DaDooRonRon(1963);
Nevertheless, the fact that the melodic lines of these two tunes drawonathree‐notevocabularydoesnotmeantheactualpieces areinatritonicmode.Performednormallywithinstrumentsand backingvocals,bothtunesareheptatonic.SweetHomeAlabamais resoundinglymixolydian( )inD(d e f# g a b c@)with itsthree‐chordmixolydianloop{D-C-G} (I-$VII-IV)andDaDoo RonRonunequivocallyionian( )inE ( )withitsionianchordloop{E$-A$- B$}(I-IV-V).Eachtune 3. 4. 5.
CitedinNettle&Myers(1976:38). Thenoteeisaloneinbeingunaccentedandoccurringonlyonce. Threeverbalvariantsofthisfamiliarñaña‐ñiñañataunt( )inEnglish are:[1]‘I’mthekingofthecastleandyou’rethedirtyrascal.’[2]‘Cry,baby Bunting;daddy’sgonea‐hunting.’[3]‘Cowardy,cowardy,custard;youdon’t eatyourmustard.’Tryalso[4]‘Die,greedybanker!You’reastupidwanker.’
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hasanunambiguoustoniclettingusidentifyinbothcases and asscaledegreesinthetritonicvocalline.Itisontheotherhand impossibletotalkabouttonicsinexamples70,71and72because theirperformanceismonophonicandhasnoobvioustonic—why woulditneedone?—fromwhichotherscaledegreescanbeunam‐ biguouslyderived.
Pentatonic Fig.22.Anhemitonic6pentatonicmodefrequencyratios
The most widely used modes outside the euroclassical sphere mustsurelybepentatonic.Onereasonfortheubiquityofanhemi‐ tonicpentatonicismmaybe,assuggestedinfigure22,thatallfive notesareacousticallylinkedbysimplepitchratios.Indoh‐penta‐ tonicC,forexample,thefrequencyratiobetween and (afifth) is2:3,thatbetween and (afourth)4:3,between and 2:3,and 4:3between and .Rearrangedinascendingorderofpitchinthe secondrowoffigure22,the‘white‐key’versionsinfigure23(p. 158)showthatthosesamefivenotesconstitutemodeslikethedoh‐ or‘major’pentatonic( —no.1infigure23)andthela‐or ‘minor’pentatonicmode( —no.5). Modes1‐5infigure23(p.158)areanhemitonicbecausetheycontain nosemitones.Theirscalarstepscomprisethreewholetones(1be‐ tweendohandré,réandmi,solandla),andtwostepsofoneanda half(1½betweenmiandsol,laanddoh).TheJapanesemodeHira‐ joshi at the bottom of figure 23, however, is hemitonic because it contains semitones ( and ). Like any other hemitonic mode,itcannotbeplayedusingonlytheblacknotesonapiano keyboardwhereasallfiveanhemitonicmodescan.Theaccountthat followsdealswiththethreemostcommonlyheardofthefivean‐ 6.
Anhemitonic=withoutsemitonesteps.N.B.some‘natural’instrumentshave morenotestotheoctaveinhigherandfewerinloweroctaves(Hirtn.d.,p.13).
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hemitonicmodes,atleastintheurbanWest,twoofwhicharealso conceptuallyfamiliar.ThosetwoaretheDOH‐modeor‘majorpen‐ tatonic’(fig.23,no.1)andthe LA‐modeor‘minorpentatonic’(fig. 23,no.6).Thethird,the RÉ‐PENTATONICmode(fig.23,no.2),de‐ spite its presence in traditional musics in the British Isles and NorthAmerica,appearstobealessfamiliarentity.
Anhemitonicpentatonic Fig.23.Fiveanhemitonicpentatonicmodes(plusonehemitonic)
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Doh‐pentatonic Ex.75.‘Sloane’(Irishtrad.),b.1‐8(DOH‐pentatonicinE )
Ex.76.TheEastIsRed(东方红‐Chinesetrad.),b.1‐4(DOH‐pentatonicinE)
Fig.24.Doh‐pentatonicmodesforexamples75(E )and76(E)
InE (ex.75)thedoh‐pentatonicnotesare [ ]and,inE (fig.76), [ ].Inadditiontocountlesswell‐knowntunes like Auld Lang Syne, Swing Low, Sweet Chariot and Sukiyaki, two other popular doh‐pentatonic melodies are cited here: The Skye BoatSong(ex.77)andAmazingGrace(ex.78). Ex.77.SkyeBoatSong(Scot.trad.,cit.mem.);doh‐pentatonicinG (blackkeys)
Ex.78.AmazingGrace(1835;mel.cit.mem.);doh‐pentatonicinF
Bothdoh‐andla‐pentatonicmelodiesarecommoninmusicfrom suchfar‐flungpartsoftheworldasWestAfrica,theAndes,East Asia (including China, Japan and Indonesia), Hungary and the BritishIsles.7 7.
Doh‐pentatonicisalsocommonamongNativeAmericansandtheSami.Suki‐ yakiisananglocentricnonsensenameforthesong上を向いて歩こう=‘Ilook upasIwalk’(Sakomoto,1961).
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La‐pentatonic LA‐PENTATONIC melody is common in traditional music from the British Isles and the Appalachians (ex. 80), as well as in blues‐ basedpopularstyles(ex.79,81). ‘Minor pentatonic scales show up everywhere in rock music… [S]ongsbyPinkFloyd,RollingStones,LedZeppelin,AC/DC,Aer‐ osmith,VanHalen,…Nirvana…feature[them]againandagain.’8 Ex.79.JohnnyCash:Hurt(2009;LA‐pentatonicA).
Ex.80.‘TheCoo‐CooBird’(UStrad.,viaAshley,1929;LA‐pentatonicG)9
Ex.81.‘BoomBoom’(Animals,1964b,coveringHooker,1963;la‐pentatonicE)
Fig.25.La‐pentatonicmodesinGandE
Examples 79‐81 are all LA‐PENTATONIC. Section 5 in figure 23 (p. 158)showsthatthefivenotesofthela‐pentatonicmode—ladohré misol[la],spacedatintervalsof1½,1,1,1½and1tonesrespec‐ tively—areequivalenttoheptatonicscaledegrees . InA(ex.79),thatpatternproducesthenotes .InG(ex.80) itproduces ( )andin (ex. 81) ( )(fig.25). 8.
9.
ThequoteisfromJoeWalker(2013)onthe‘DeftDigitsGuitarLessons’site.A websearchforʺminorpentatonicʺ(2013‐12‐31)produced685,000hits,mostof whichweretutorialsforrockguitaristsbeingsoldla‐pentatonicimprovisation lessons.Seep.165,ff.forthela‐pentatonicbluesmode. SeetranscriptionbyDKGarner sites.duke.edu/banjology/transcriptions/coo-coo-astudy/the-coo-coo-bird-by-clarence-ashley/ [140322].
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Ré‐pentatonic Section2inTable23(p.158)showsthatthefivenotesoftheRÉ‐PEN‐ TATONIC mode —ré mi sol la doh— are equivalent to heptatonic scaledegrees .InDthatré‐pentatonicpatternof1+1½+ 1+1½+1stepsproducesthenotes .InA(ex.82‐83)that samescaledegreepattern— —resultsin ,while inC (ex.84)itgives and,inC(ex.85), . Ex.82.ShadyGrove(UStrad.viaClarenceAshley,ré‐pentatonicA)
Ex.83.TheBraesofLochiel(Scot.trad.,bars1‐5;ré‐pentatonicA)
Ex.84.‘LowlandsOfHolland(UK.trad./SteeleyeSpan,1970;≈ré‐pentatonicC#)
Ex.85.‘FemaleDrummer(Eng.trad.viaSteeleyeSpan,1971;≈ré‐pentatonicC)
Ré‐pentatonictunesseemmoreunfamiliarthandoh‐andla‐modes tomostofmystudents,manyofwhomhear,forexample,TheFe‐ maleDrummer(ex.85)ina‘minor’mode(usuallydorian)despite therebeingnothingminor(ormajor)aboutitbecauseitcontains nothirdatall,neitherminor( )normajor( ).Noristhemodein anywayunresolvedorincomplete,eventhoughmanymusicians insistonreferringtoitas‘suspended’.10 Diligent readers will have observed that examples 82‐83 are en‐ tirelyré‐pentatonicbutthat,strictlyspeaking,examples84and85 arenot.That’sbecausethere’san ( in )inbar9ofexample84
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andan ( in )inbars3‐5and11‐13ofexample85.So,ifneither nor arepartoftheré‐pentatonicmode,whyareexamples84 and85solabelled?It’sbecausethoseextranotesmarkatemporary counterpoise11 to an overriding ré‐pentatonic tonality. Since that interpretationsoundsabitspurious,Ihadbetterexplain. Thesingle inbar9ofTheLowlandsOfHolland(ex.84)marksa momentary change from C ré‐pentatonic to either C la‐penta‐ tonicorEdoh‐pentatonic.Itoccursnearthestartofthethirdoffour 4‐bar periods, a typical half‐way point for going tonally ‘else‐ where’ before ‘returning home’: it’s the ‘B’ in a standard AABA strophicpatternwhosethree‘A’periodsstayconsistentlyinC ré‐ pentatonic. In The Female Drummer (ex. 85) the highlighting of a tonal‘elsewhere’worksdifferently.Herethe ( inC)servesto underlinetheimportanceofthetune’scounterpoiseon ( ).It couldbearguedthatthe ’sfunctionisthatofamomentarylead‐ ingnotetothe .12Thatinterpretationdoesnotworkontheex‐ tractsshownasexamples95‐102,allofwhichareunequivocallyré‐ hexatonicanddiscussedonpages176‐177. SongslikeTheFemaleDrummerandTheLowlandsOfHollandare,as wejustsaw,basicallypentatonicwithamomentaryhexatonic‘ex‐ tra’.Bluestonality,soinfluentialoneverydaymusicinthetwenti‐ ethcentury,issimilaronthatcountbutinaverydifferentway. Bluespentatonic Viewedinhighlyschematicterms,bluesmelodyisbasedonthe anhemitonicdoh‐andla‐pentatonicmodes(fig.26,nºs1and2,p. 163).Thelowerlineinfigure26(nºs3and4)showsthesortoftonal materialyou’relikelytoactuallyhear.Notonlyarethemodespre‐ sented in descending order in accordance with the blues‐typical 10. Forexample:[1]‘Suspendedpentatonictutorial’ IAR7P0rVWMA;[2]‘Egyp‐ tian‐suspended’inWikipediaarticle‘Pentatonicscales’;[3]AdvicefromThe JazzTheoryBook(Levine,1995)thatthe‘suspendedpentatonic’isgoodfor playingover c apassion4jazz.net/jazz-chords-scales.html.[Allvisits140214]. 11. Counterpoise:seeGlossaryandpp.161‐164. 12. The isalwaysfollowedby inthistune.Onlyoneofthethree sisona strongbeat(bars5and12).Theothertwo(bars3‐4,11‐12)arebothunac‐ centedupbeatsto .Seealsofig.29,p.171andp.176,ff.
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tumblingstrain(seep.187,ff.);theyalsoshowsomecommonal‐ ternativestostrictlypentatonicpitchesintermsofsubstitution,in‐ flectionandharmonicormelodiccontext.13 Fig.26.Bluespentatonicmodes:[1]doh‐pentatonic;[2]la‐pentatonic; [3]blues/gospelmajorpentatonic;[4]bluesminorpentatonic.
Doh‐pentatonicblues The BLUES‐GOSPEL MAJOR PENTATONICmodeissocalledbecauseit resemblesthestandard DOH‐PENTATONICmodewithits and . Thequalifier‘gospel’simplyalludestoitsfrequentuseingospel‐ relatedstyles,as shownonpage164inexamples86(AlexBrad‐ ford)and87(SmokeyRobinson),14whilethe‘blues’epithetisob‐ viousfromthetwelvebarsofBessieSmithinexample88.Inthis mode,thetwoscaledegreesmostcommonlysubjectedtovariation are and . canbereplacedby iftheunderlyingharmonyso demands,forexample insteadof overCé.15Evenmorecom‐ monisabluenoteon ,eitherasW orasaslidefrom towards (notatedasanascending infigure26andasapassing in descent).Astraight withnoslideorbend( inC)replaces whentheharmoniesshifttoachordonIV(FéifthebluesisinC). Finally,the[ ]‐ attheendofexample3infigure26showsthe notes often used around the tonic in this mode. Two examples servetoillustratehowthismodeisusedingospel‐relatedstyles. 13. Foradetailedpresentationofblues‐modepitchesandthefrequencywith whichtheywereusedin44‘downhome’bluesrecordings,seeTiton(1977: 155),asreproducedandexplainedinLilja(2009:158). 14. TheabandonmentofbluesbyAfricanAmericansduringtheCivilRightsand BlackPowermovementsofthe1960sinfavourofgospelandsoulissocio‐ politicallywelldocumentedinRightOn!FromBluestoSoulinBlackAmerica (Haralambos,1974).Itstonalaspect,fromla‐pentatonicbluesmodeswithflat fifthstoamoredoh‐pentatonicsoundislesswell‐known. 15. canoccasionallybereplacedby ifthechordsmoveontoaVbutit’s more‘gospel’formelodiclinestosticktodoh‐pentatonicoverV.
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Example86,takenfroma1955recordingbygospelvocalistAlex Bradford,isentirelydoh‐pentatonicinA( = ), exceptforthealterationof to ( replaces )overtheD (IV) chordinbar4.Doh‐pentatonicinAisideallysuitedtotheimpro‐ vised melodic outbursts heard during the shuttle between the chordsAandF#m(I\vi)thatoccupiesoverhalfofthetrack’srun‐ ningtimebecausemajor(doh)pentatonicinAcontainsthesame notesasminor(la)pentatonicinF .Thesamesortoftonalshuttle, both melodic and harmonic, is heard in other up‐tempo gospel numberslikeShout(IsleyBrothers,1959;Lulu,1964). Ex.86.AlexBradford(1955):SomebodyTouchedMe
Ex.87.SmokeyRobinson&TheMiracles(1963)YouReallyGotAHoldOnMe
Ex.88.BessieSmith(1929)I’mWildAboutThatThing
Inexample88BessieSmith,inatwelve‐barB$blues‐gospelpenta‐ toniceulogytopartofherlover’sanatomy(‘Giveittome,papa; I’mwildaboutthatthing’),illustrateshowthemode’stonalaltera‐
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tionprincipleswork.Doh‐pentatonic isreplacedbyblues‐gos‐ pel§ ( asbluenote)inbars4,7and10butbya‘straight’ ( ) overtheE$(IV)chordinbar5,justlikethe overDéinexample 86.Anotherfamousdoh‐pentatonicbluesexample( in A)istheJohnLomaxrecordingofArkansasStatePrisoninmates singingTheRockIslandLine(Pace,1934). La‐pentatonicblues ThemostsignificanttraitintheBLUESMINORmodeisitstreatment ofla‐pentatonic .Itcanbestated‘straight’,butitcanalsobe‘slid upto’from justbelow,aswiththe inbar1ofexample89 and in bar 2 of example 90; or it can be inserted as, or altered wholesaleto, ,usuallyfollowedby ,asinthosesametwoexam‐ ples, most notably on the last ‘money’ in the Valentine Brothers track(ex.90).Inthebluesminormode, and aremorerarely the object of slides or bends. They are usually articulated as ‘straight’ sand s,occasionallyas§ and§ . Ex.89.RobertJohnson(1936):KindHeartedWomanBlues
Ex.90.ValentineBrothers(1982):Money’sTooTightToMention,2:15‐2:33
Amongotherfamousrecordingsfeaturingthesetraitsoftheminor blues mode are Robert Johnson’s Crossroads (1937, in B), Charlie Patton’sStonePony(1934,inF)andTexasAlexander’sPeacefulBlues (1929,inF ),allofwhichcontain or§ ,aswellas and ac‐ companiedbymajorchordsontheguitar. Thela‐pentatonicbluesmode’s becameadefiningtraitofbebop. Itallowedmusicianstodoallsortsofcleverthingswithharmony (p.274,ff.)andbecamesynonymouswithjazznotionsofcool.The
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descending ( inF)isgiventhis‘cool’treatmentinthetritone tripletfigure ( )inbars4and6ofexample91.16 Ex.91.BobbyTimmons(1958):Moanin’;
asbopblues.
Ex.92.HenryMancini(1963):ThePinkPanther(repeated extract).
Asamuchusedmusicalsignof1950sstreetwisesophistication, becameasittingduckforsatire.JustfiveyearsafterArtBlakey’s popularrecordingofMoanin’(ex.91),HenriMancini(ex.92)set thecomicincompetenceofInspectorClouzot—includinghisP.I. trenchcoatandotherdelusionsofcool—toabarrageofflatfives ( is inThePinkPanther’sEminorbluespentatonicmode).The isheldrelentlesslyinbar3oftheextractinexample92andis hammeredhomefourtimesinbar6beforetricklingdownintri‐ plets—likethe figureinMoanin’—tothefinaltonic.17 Despitetheflatfive’sfallfromgraceasthetonalepitomeofcool— ’jazzisnotdead,itjustsmellsfunny’,saidFrankZappa,18—thela‐ 16. ‘[Dizzy]Gillespieisgenerallycreditedwithintroducingtheflattedfifthinto bebopasamajorstylisticdevice,anditbecameafeatureofeverybopper’s style”(JackChambersinMilestones,1983:30). 17. Similar$Û-Ô-$Î-Âtriplet‘trickle‐downs’occurinWorkSong(NatAdderley, 1960).Forafullaccountofflat‐fiveconnotationsbecomingstereotypical, includingOurManFlint(Goldsmith,1966),Hey,BigSpender(Coleman& Fields,1966)andaPhiladelphiaCreamCheesead,see‘Churchoftheflatted fifthandP.I.cool’inTagg&Clarida(2003:580‐588). 18. InBebopTango(OftheOldJazzmen’sChurch)(Zappa,1974).
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pentatonic blues mode and its returned with a vengeance in earlyheavymetal,asheardinexamples93and94,aswellasin tracks like Rat Salad (Black Sabbath, 1970b), Highway Star (Deep Purple,1972b)andWrathChild(IronMaiden,1972).19Suchpromi‐ nentuseofthela‐pentatonicbluesmode’s inearlymetalmay well have reinforced the predilection among some exponents of thestyleforthetritoneingeneral,ratherthanaspartoftheblues la‐pentatonicmode.20 Ex.93.Cream:SunshineOfYourSmile(1968):bluesla‐pentatonicriffinA
Ex.94.DeepPurple:SmokeOnTheWater(1972a,0:26‐0:35):openingguitar riffwithbass,bluesla‐pentatonicinG21
Theoreticalbridgefromfivetosix Onelastpieceoftheoryisneededbeforetakingonthehexatonic modes.Itinvolvesdividingtheoctaveintotwohalves,onepenta‐ tonic,theotherheptatonic.Infigure27(p.168)thepentatonictri‐ chords on miandsol aregreyed out becausethey’rethesame as thosestartingonla(scalesteps1½,1,1)andré(1,1½,1).TheTHREE PENTATONICTRICHORDSbetween and aretherefore:[1]theDOH‐ PENTATONICTRICHORD (scalesteps1,1,1½);[2]theRÉ‐PEN‐ TATONIC TRICHORD (1, 1½, 1); [3] the LA‐PENTATONIC TRI‐ CHORD (scalesteps1½,1,1). 19. SeeLilja(2009:158‐161). 20. Forexample:[1]thebrazeng2c#3atthestartofBlackSabbath(BlackSab‐ bath,1970a);[2]anyonlineheavymetallocrianguitartutor,e.g.‘Slipknot AnthraxLambofGodmetallicksguitarlessonusinglocrianmodenextlevel guitar’on MwTHXY6BMZk [140626];[3]theSlayerAlbumDiabolusinMusica (1998).Itis,however,importanttoremember,asLilja(2009:161)explains,that pentatonicism,withorwithoutthetritone( or ),isjustoneofseveral typesoftonalityusedinheavymetal. 21. Seealsopowerchordsection,pp.284‐288.
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Fig.27.ThethreeanhemitonicPENTATONICTRICHORDS:Doh,RéandLa.
Theotherscalarhalfofthehexatonicmodesdiscussedbelowcon‐ sists of one of the THREE SYMMETRICAL HEPTATONIC TETRACHORDS shownfirstinfigure28:[1]theDOHorionianTETRACHORD (tonesteppattern1,1,½);[2]theRÉordorianTETRACHORD (1,½,1);[3]theMIorphrygianTETRACHORD (½,1,1).Since the other ‘church’ modes are asymmetrical, their names are less usefulastetrachordqualifiersthanthethreejustmentioned.22 Fig.28.3+1octave‐symmetricaltetrachords
TheHijaztetrachordisincludedinfigure28because,liketheother three,it’ssymmetricalinthesensethatitcanbeusedinthesame 22. Whyaren’taeolian,mixolydianetc.usedastetrachordqualifiers?Seep.169.
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heptatonic mode as both upper and lower tetrachord (Hijaz Kar, fig.20,p.120).Italsoconstitutestheupperhalfoftheharmonicmi‐ normode( = )whoselowertetrachordisdorian ( ).Amongotherheptatonicmodesbuiltontwodifferenttetra‐ chordsarethemixolydian,whoselowerhalfisionian andits upperdorian( = ,andtheaeolianwithitslowerdo‐ rianandupperphrygiantetrachords( and = ). The lydian and locrian, as well as Niavent (Nawa Athar), NikrizandMustaarareallasymmetricalbecause,bycontaining or ,theirlowertetrachordcannotbetransposedafifthtotheup‐ perhalfoftheoctave(seefigure20,p.120andTable11,p.139). Thetheoreticalexplanationsjustofferedletusunderstandthat,for example: [1] the doh‐hexatonic mode consists of a lower hepta‐ tonicionian(doh)tetrachord( )andapentatonicupperré trichord( ),afifthhigheras ;[2]thequartalla‐hexatonic modeconsistsofapentatoniclowerré‐trichord( )andahep‐ tatonicuppermi‐tetrachord( ),afifthhigheras .
Hexatonicmodes Nonames Hexatonicmodesare,asweshallshortlysee,verycommoninmel‐ odyfromtheBritishIslesandNorthAmerica.Andyet,whilepen‐ tatonic and heptatonic modes may be covered in music theory courses,hexatonicmodesareconspicuousbytheirabsence,with oneexception,the‘whole‐tonescale’,probablyincludedbecause of its use by accredited euroclassical composers like Debussy. More popular hexatonic modes, those containing a perfect fifth, like the ‘seventhless’ doh‐mode, don’t seem to make it into the academy.AndsofarI’vebeentreatingthemasiftheywereeither deficientlyheptatonic(e.g.the‘seventhless’doh‐mode),orpenta‐ tonicwithonenotetoomany(e.g.the‘extra’ intheotherwiseré‐ pentatonic Female Drummer). Nor do hexatonic modes appear to havereadynameslike‘lydian’or‘la‐pentatonic’allowingthemto beeasilyidentifiedordiscussedwithoutcumbersomeperiphrasis. Theaimofthissectionisthereforetobringsomesemblanceofor‐ derintowhatseemshithertotohavebeensomethingofaconcep‐
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tualno‐man’sland,toexplainhowcommonhexatonicmodesare constructed,andtosuggestsimplewaysinwhichthosemodescan beidentifiedandnamed.TomakethistasklessdauntingI’vecho‐ sentofocusonhexatonicmodesplayableonthewhitekeysofapi‐ anokeyboard.I’veidentifiedthosemodesintwoways:byrelative tonicnote—doh,ré,mi,fa,solandla—andbythenatureofeach mode’sthirdscaledegree( ).Thethreetypesofthirdare:[1] — ‘majorhexatonic’;[2] —’minorhexatonic’;[3]nothirdatall— ’quartalhexatonic’.Aftertheinitialsystematictable(figure29,p. 171) and some theoretical explanations, examples are presented anddiscussedinorderofthethreetypesofthirdjustmentioned. Thehexatonicmodesinfigure29(p.171)sharecommonfeatures. Apartfromconsistingbydefinitionofsixdifferenttones,eachof them contains four scalar steps of a whole tone (‘1’ in the right‐ handcolumn),oneofasemitone(‘½’),andoneofthreesemitones (‘1½’).Theyalsoallconsistofapentatonictrichordandahepta‐ tonictetrachord(figures27and28,p.168).Theboundarybetween thetwo,justbelowthefifthineachmode,ismarkedinfigure29by asmallverticaldash(‘|’)intheleftcolumn.Forexample,themuch usedDOH‐HEXATONICmode—dohrémifasolla(doh)—containsno seventh.Itslowerhalfconsistsoffournotesorthreesteps: = =2tonesplus1semitone—1,1,½,i.e.anionianordohtet‐ rachord,whileitstophalfisaré‐pentatonictrichord( , oronewholetoneplusthreesemitones—1,1½).Togetherthatpro‐ duces [ ]forthewholemode( [ ]inC).The equallyubiquitousLA‐HEXATONICmode,ontheotherhand,is‘six‐ thless’— [ ]= [ ]inA—andconsistsofa ré tetrachord ( ) in the lower half and a la‐pentatonic tri‐ chordintheupper( as [= ]for inA). Similardeconstructionofeachmodeinfigure29revealsaunique combinationoftetrachordandtrichord,exceptforthesecondmi modeandthefinalsolmode.Thesetwoaregreyedoutbecause,al‐ thoughtheycanbegeneratedonthewhitenotesofthepianowith e and g as tonic, they produce the same scale degrees as other hexatonicmodes:the [ ]inE( )isthesame asaeolianhexatonicinA( ),whilethe inG ( )isidenticaltoré‐hexatonicinD( ).23
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Fig.29.‘White‐note’hexatonicmodescontainingaperfectfifth.24
23. Tosavespace,otherduplicatesarenotincludedinfigure29,forexample:sev‐ enthlessdoh‐hexatoniccanbeproducedonFandGaswellasonC;doh ioniancanalsobeproducedonF. 24. Forexplanationsoffigure29,seefollowingtextandfootnote25(p.172).
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Thehexatonicmodesinfigure29 havebeennamedaccordingto thefollowingprinciples.25Ifthetonesofthewhite‐notemodeare partofaheptatonic‘church’modeandifitshexatonicscaledegree profileisnotduplicatedelsewhereinthetable,itisgiventherele‐ vant ‘church’ mode’s name. That’s why the tertial mode in D is called DORIAN HEXATONIC: its combination of and is uniquelydorian.It’salsowhythesolmodecontaining and isMIXOLYDIANHEXATONIC,andwhythemimodefeaturing isex‐ clusivelyphrygian;it’salsotheonlymimodeandcanthereforebe called either MI HEXATONIC or PHRYGIAN HEXATONIC. In the same way,giventhatthefourthlessdohmodecontaining and is the only one listed to contain those ionian scale degrees,26 it’s called IONIAN HEXATONIC, while its widely used ‘seventhless’ cousin( )canbecalledsimplyDOHHEXATONIC. Ifahexatonicmodecontainsnothird,itisqualifiableasquartal. Usingthewhitekeysofapiano,hexatonicquartalmodescanbe constructedonA/La( —LAQUARTALHEXATONIC),D/Ré ( —RÉ HEXATONIC)andG/Sol( ,samede‐ greesasD/Ré).Réquartaliscalledsimply RÉ HEXATONICbecause itsfirstfournotes( )includetheré‐pentatonictrichord . BoththefourthlessandthesixthlessmodesonG/Solareuniquely mixolydian( and )butthatadjectiveis reservedforthefirstofthetwobecauseitisevenmorespecifically mixolydianthantheG‐modewithout ,whichcanbecalledsim‐ plySOLHEXATONIC. Tosummarise:thehexatonicmodesinfigure29(p.171)canbecat‐ egorisedinseveralways.HereIshalldosointermsofthreetypes ofthirds:[1] MAJOR HEXATONIC,i.e.thosecontainingamajorthird 25. By‘hexatonicwhite‐notemodes’ismeantthosethatcanbeplayedononlythe whitenotesofapianokeyboardifthetonicissettothenotestatedintheleft handcolumnoffigure29,e.g.Aforthela‐hexatonic,theaeolianhexatonic, andla‐quartalhexatonicmodes.SincetheylackperfectfifthandsinceIknew nomusiccontainingthem,locrianhexatonicmodes( and )arenotincludedinfigure29. 26. ThatmodecanalsobeproducedonF,butsinceafamodewithout negates itsmostdistinctivetrait,itisnotcountedhere(seealsofootnote24,p.171).
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—thedo,solandfamodes;[2]MINORHEXATONIC,i.e.thosecontain‐ ingaminorthird—theré‐tertial,the(‘sixthless’)lamode,thela‐ae‐ olian and the mi mode. [3] QUARTAL HEXATONIC, i.e. those with neithermajornorminorthird—theréandthela‐quartalmodes.
Majorhexatonic Examples95‐97allincludeasemitonebetweenscaledegrees3( ) and4( ).27Theyaren’tpentatonicbecauseallheptatonicscalede‐ greesexcept arepresentinallthreetunes.28Herewe’redealing withtheseventhlessDOHHEXATONICmode,socalledbecause and ,can,ifC(doh)orG(sol)istonic,beplayedonthe whitenotesofapianokeyboard.Thismodeiscommonintradi‐ tionalandpopularmusicfromtheBritishIslesandtheUSA.29 Ex.95.‘ThisOldMan’(Eng.trad.,cit.mem.)doh‐hexatonic; = inD).
Ex.96.‘TheClaudyBanks’(Eng.trad.,viaTheAlbionCountryBand,1970); doh‐hexatonic = inE)
Ex.97.MacPherson’sFarewell(Scot.trad.,mel.cit.mem.); 27. inex.95(inD), inex.96(inE), inex.97(inF). 28. Neither not isincludedinexample95,neither nor inexample96, butscaledegrees and areallclearlypresentinboth. 29. e.g.Oh!Susanna(Foster),LochLomond(Scot.trad.),TheFalseKnight(Eng.trad. viaSteeleyeSpan,1970),Fallin’Out(Jennings,1987),TheFieldsHaveTurned Brown(Stanley,1950),LastTrainFromPoorValley(UStrad./Blake,1974).
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=
inF.
Andfinally,tounderlinetheeverydayubiquityoftheseventhless majorhexatonicmode(doh‐hexatonic),here’sSirTomJones. Ex.98.TomJones:It’sNotUnusual(1965);doh‐hexatonicinC(nob@)
Minorhexatonic Minorhexatonictunesarecommonintraditionalmusicfromthe BritishIslesandtheAppalachians.Examples99‐104areallinthe sixthlessLA‐HEXATONICmode— . ThetuneusuallysungtoRobertBurns’stirringpoliticalpoemYe JacobitesByName(from1791),isla‐hexatonicandcitedasexample 99.Thetunecontains (no ,no ). Ex.99.YeJacobitesByName(Scot.trad.viaTheCorries,1971);la‐hexatonicF
TheMaidOfCoolmore(ex.100),aslowtraditionalsongofparting, isperformedbyTheBothyBandinla‐hexatonicB.Itcontains butneither nor .
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Ex.100. TheMaidOfCoolmore(Ir.trad.viaBothyBand,1976);la‐hexatonicB
La‐hexatonictunesaren’tonlyfoundintraditionalsongsfrompre‐ industrialScotlandandIreland.WhenJohnnyComesMarchingHome (ex.101,p.175)maydatefromthetimeoftheUSCivilWarbutit’s still a well‐known tune on the repertoire of countless marching bands.Inla‐hexatonicG,itcontainsnosixth,neither nor ,just and . Ex.101.WhenJohnnyComesMarchingHome(UStrad.);la‐hexatonicG
WhichSideAreYouOn?(ex.102),inla‐hexatonicE,contains butneither nor .Firstrecordedintheearly1930s,it’sone of the USA’s most popular (and stirring) union songs. And the hooklineofTheHollies1966hitBusStop(ex.103)isinla‐hexatonic A.Itcontains and butneither nor . Ex.102.FlorenceReece:WhichSideAreYouOn?(1931);lahexatonicE
Ex.103.Hollies:BusStop(1966);lahexatonicA
Finally, the Dolly Parton hit Jolene (1973; ex. 104, p. 176) is in la‐ hexatonicC andcontains butneither nor .
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Ex.104.DollyParton:Jolene(1973);la‐hexatonicC
Quartalorréhexatonic Ex.105.‘TheDrunkenPiper’,bars1‐8,nogracenotes(fr.ScotsGuardsSet‐ tingsofPipeMusic,Vol1,1954);inré‐hexatonicA(soundingB ): = inA.
Ex.106.‘WondrousLove’(UStrad.,arr.Hauser,SouthernHarmony(1854) viaPopularMusicinJacksonianAmerica(1982);ré‐hexatonicF; = inF)
Asarguedearlier,TheFemaleDrummer(ex.85,p.161)canbeheard asbasicallyré‐pentatonic( )withanunaccented added inatcertainpoints.Itcanalsobeclassedasré‐hexatoniclikeun‐ equivocally ré‐hexatonic examples 105‐107, The Drunken Piper, WondrousLove,andTiocfaidhansamhradh.Theyallcontainscalede‐ grees .30 30. Tiocfaidhansamhradh means‘summeriscoming’.Mostof BrendaStubbert’sReel(Greaves,2010;Cuthill,2010)isré‐pentatonic.Thanksto ChrisMcDonald(CapeBreton)forthisandseveralotherreferences.
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Ex.107.Tiocfaidhansamhradh(Ir.trad.viaBreathnach,2007);ré‐hexatonicA; = inA
Althoughthere’sneither nor inTheDrunkenPiper(ex.105,p. 176inré‐hexatonicinA),neither nor inWhatWondrousLove (ex.106,inF),neither nor inTiocfaidhansamhradh(inA),and neither nor inTheFemaleDrummer(inC,ex.85,p.161),my musicstudents,schooledineuroclassicaland/orjazztheory,have habituallyidentifiedthosethirdlesstunesasdorian( ).Theyrarelymistakethemodeformixolydianeventhoughthat modealsocontains and .Howcome? Thethoughtprocessseemstobethatifthetuneisnotinamajor mode,it‘has’tobeintheminor;and,ifso,ithastobedorian,be‐ causethat’stheonlyminormodetocontain .It’sasifthemajor‐ minordualismofeuroclassicalmusictheoryprecludedanymode thatdoesn’tfitintoitsscheme.Quartal(‘thirdless’)modeslikeré‐ or sol‐hexatonic may be less familiar than their major or minor cousinsbutthat’shardlyareasonforpretendingtheydon’texist.
Non‐tonicalmodes Thewhole‐tonescale AllthehexatonicmodesdiscussedaboveareTONICAL31butthereis oneNON‐TONICALhexatonicmodeisalsopartofeverydaytonality. TheWHOLE‐TONESCALEissocalledbecauseitssixscaledegreesare all separated by a whole tone. Unlike the hexatonic modes pre‐ sentedsofar,itcontainsnoperfectfifthandcanonlybetransposed tooneotherposition,asshowninfigure30. 31. TONICAL:see§§7‐10,p.67.
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Fig.30.Thetwowhole‐tonescales
Ex.108.Debussy(1910):Voiles,bars1‐4;whole‐tonescale
Oneuseofthewhole‐tonescaleistoexploititsnon‐tonicality—it containsneitherperfectfifthnorfourth—tosuggestsomethingin‐ determinateorunrooted,likethehazy,impressionisticupper‐reg‐ isterflutteringofDebussy’sVoiles(=‘Sails’or‘Veils’,ex.108). The‘DaveConservatoire’putsitthisway: [Thewhole‐tonescale]‘isoftenusedtoproduceadreamy,fantasy‐ likecharactertomusicandisusedinfilmandtelevisionsound‐ trackstoindicatemovingfromonedimensiontoanother—aflash‐ backordreamsequence,forexample.’32
Indeed,StarTrekteleportationsaresettoanequallymagicalelec‐ tronicwhole‐tonerippleandshimmer.Buttheindeterminatefan‐ tasy element of the whole‐tone scale can, depending on instrumentation,register,dynamics,etc.,alsobecomelessmagical andmoremysterious,evensinister,asinHerrmann’sscoreforthe chasesceneinHitchcock’sNorthbyNorthwest(1959). The other main everyday use of the whole‐tone scale is in jazz whereitactsas‘go‐to’tonalvocabularyformelodicimprovisation over chords containing an augmented triad. Jazz musicians can usetheCwhole‐tonescale(no.1infig.30,p.178)overastandard augmentedchordbasedonanyofthesixnotesinthescale(e.g.CéP E9P A$7U)andtheBwhole‐tonescale(no.2infig.30)forthesame chordtypesbasedofanyofitssixnotes(e.g.E$7P, F9P, G7U).33 32. .daveconservatoire.org/lesson/wholetonescales[140216]. 33. The‘Prometheusscale’, ,isamuchmoreesotericnon‐tonical typeofhexatonicmodeandhardlyqualifiesas‘everydaytonality’.Aug‐ mentedtriadsarepresentedinChapter7(p.226).C7+andC9+ arechordnum‐ bers9and18inTable15(p.236).
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Octatonic Like its whole‐tone cousin, the octatonic scale only has two ver‐ sions.Bothruninalternatestepsofwholeandhalftones. Fig.31.Thetwooctatonicscales
Theoctatonicscaleisalsosimilartothewhole‐tonescaleinthree otherways.First,sinceitlackseithertheperfectfifth(no.1infig. 31) orperfectfourth (no. 2), it sounds quite non‐tonical. Second, thattonalinstabilityalsomakesitsuitableasanotherfilmmusic mystery mode, as in the Poledouris underscore for the passing spacecraft in Starship Troopers (1997) or in Herrmann’s music for TheDaytheEarthStoodStill(1951).34Third,theoctatonicscaleisa favourite with jazz musicians needing to improvise over dimin‐ ished chords to the extent that, in jazz theory, the mode is often calledthe‘diminishedscale’.‘Masterthediminishedscaleintwo seconds’,saysoneonlinejazztutorwhileanotherpostingplugs: ‘THEdefiningtreatiseonthediminishedscale.Itexplainsevery‐ thingyouneedtoknowaboutthisversatilescaleandhow/where touseitinyoursolos.’35
Finalthoughtsonnon‐ionianmodes Modenamesoftenreflect,aswehaveseen,hegemonicidentifica‐ tion of tonal vocabulary in ethnic terms like ‘Gypsy’. Even the ‘church’modeswereoriginallynamedafterancientGreekprov‐ incesandseveralmaqamlabelsaregeo‐ethnic(e.g.Iraqi,Kurd,Hi‐ jaz).36 From a contemporary Northern European or North American hearpoint, the phrygian mode is often, as we saw in 34. ExamplesprovidedbyMurphy(2006)in‘TheMajorTritoneProgressionin RecentHollywoodScienceFictionFilms’. 35. Theonlinetutorisat hearandplay.com/main/diminished-scale-in-2-second.Thetrea‐ tiseadvertisedisWaltWeiskopf’sUnderstandingtheDiminishedScale—aguide forthemodernjazzplayer.Itsonlineplugisat jazzbooks.com/jazz/product/UDS [both 140216]. 36. Hijaz(a.k.aHejaz,capitalJedah)isanareainthewestoftoday’sSaudiArabia.
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Chapter3,assumedtosoundHispanicor,ifnot,Balkan,Arabor Jewish (make your mind up!), while anhemitonic pentatonicism canbeheard,justasconfusingly,asScottish,Irish,‘Celtic’,‘Orien‐ tal’,Chinese,Andean,etc.USfilmmusicfrequentlyusessuchhe‐ gemonicperceptionoftonalidiomtotransmitculturalstereotypes of place and sometimes it actually works. In fact, modes can, if useddiscerningly,bejustasefficientasinstrumentaltimbrewhen itcomestoestablishingculturallocationinaudiovisualcontexts. Forexample,whilethesoundofakotomightinitselfconjureup something of‘traditional Japan’ to non‐Japanese listeners, ethnic connotatonswouldbemuchclearerifitplayedsomethinginthe fourthpositionofthepentatonicHirajoshimode(fig.23,p.158). Giventhatmodeandmoodareetymologicallyrelated,itisnosur‐ prisetofindthatdifferentmodesarealsoperceivedasconnoting differentmoods.Suchconnotationsareculturallyspecific.Forex‐ ample, the equation of minor modes with ‘sad’ and major with ‘happy’hassomevaliditywithintheeuroclassicaltonalsystemof artmusicandrelatedpopularstylesbutitislargelyinapplicableto themusicofothercultures.Similarly,rockandpopmusicusingae‐ olianharmonyinacertainwayhashadatendencytobeassociated with theominous,37 whilemixolydian film andpopmusicveers moretowardsamoodofwideopenspaces.WithinAfricanAmer‐ icanmusic,descendingminorpentatonicmodeswith‘blue’fifths aremorelikelytoconnectwitheitheroutdatedjazz‘cool’orwith blues, old times and oppression, while melismatic major penta‐ tonicmelodyismorelikelytolinkwiththepositiveecstasyofgos‐ pelmusic,orwithhopeforabrighterfutureinthefightforCivil Rights,or,morerecently,withmoresomatictypesofindividual‐ isedabandon(‘whoa‐oh,baby,yeah!’).38 Duringthehegemonyofeuroclassicalmajor‐minortonality,music fromthecontinent’sfringeareas(Spain,Russia,Scandinavia,the 37. SeeBjörnberg(1989).SeealsoChapter8,p.389,ff. 38. Forlatter‐daymelismaticdoh‐pentatonismofamoreeroticnature,see,for exampleSoEmotional(WhitneyHouston,1987),orWeBelongTogether(Mariah Carey,2005),orLovinʹYou(MinnieRiperton,1974).
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BalkansandBritishIsles)wasoftencharacterisedbythemusico‐ logical establishment as ‘modal’, because, although much music producedinthoseareasconformedtothecentral(ionian)normsof tonality, much of it —typically rural popular music— did not: it conformed to modes regarded as archaic by the European bour‐ geoisieduringtheascendancyofthatclass.Someofthesemodes, notablythosecontainingaflatseventhandthetwocommonestan‐ hemitonicpentatonicmodesareregarded,rightlyorwrongly,as typicalofruralmusicfromtheBritishIsles.Thesemodesblended withcompatibletonalvocabulariesofWestAfricanorigintocon‐ tributetothedevelopmentofNorthAmericanpopularstylesthat challenged the hegemony of euroclassical major‐minor tonality duringthetwentiethcenturyonaglobalscale.Whoknowswhatis happeningtothatglobaltonalityasNorthAmericanowceasesto be‘thefuture’?…39
Summaryin14points [1]Modescontaininglessthanseventonesarenomoreemptythan modescontainingmorethansevenarenecessarilycluttered. [2]TRITONICANDTETRATONICmelodyiscommoninmanypartsofthe world,includingtheurbanWest. [3] PENTATONIC melody is found all over the world. ANHEMITONIC PENTATONICISM(whatcanbeplayedontheblacknotesofapianokey‐
board)isparticularlycommon. [4] An anhemitonic PENTATONIC OCTAVE contains three whole tone stepsandtwostepsof1½tones. [5]Theconstituenttonesinanyanhemitonicpentatonicmodearere‐ latedtoeachotherbySIMPLEPITCHFREQUENCYRATIOS. [6]AnhemitonicpentatonicmodescanhaveDOH,RÉ,MI,SOLorLAas tonalcentre.The DOH‐PENTATONICmodeisalsocalled MAJOR PENTA‐ TONICbecauseit’stheonlyonetoinclude .The MI‐and LA‐MODEs are MINOR PENTATONIC because they include . The RÉ‐ and SOL‐ MODEsare QUARTAL PENTATONICbecausetheycontain butneither nor .MI‐PENTATONICisunusualbecauseithasno . 39. ‘Playingbluesypentatonicdoesn’ttendtowork…overasinisterriff’(UK metalmusicianLukeRaynercitedbyMoore,2013:203).
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[7]ThemostfamiliarpentatonicmodesintheWestarethosebasedon DOH and LA. Blues pentatonicism is essentially based on those two modes.TheDOH‐PENTATONICBLUESmodeiscommoninpre‐warjazz andingospel‐relatedstyles.TheLA‐PENTATONICBLUESmodeismore commoninguitarblues,inblues‐basedrockand‘cool’jazz. [8] HEXATONIC MELODYisextremelycommonbutnoacceptedtermi‐ nologyexistsforthedesignationoftonicalhexatonicmodes. [9] TONICAL HEXATONIC MODES used in the West consist of a hepta‐ tonictetrachordandapentatonictrichord.Thereareninesuchmodes thatcan beplayedonthewhite notes ofapianokeyboardandthat contain a perfect fifth. A hexatonic octave of this sort contains four whole‐tonesteps,onesemitonestepandonestepof1½tones. [10]Hexatonicmodesincommonusearetheseventhless DOH‐HEXA‐ TONIC,thesixthlessLA‐HEXATONICandthethirdlessRÉ‐HEXATONIC. [11]TheWHOLE‐TONE SCALEisalsohexatonicbutitisnon‐tonicalbe‐ causeitcontainsneitherperfectfifthnorperfectfourth. [12] The OCTATONIC SCALE run in alternate steps of whole and half tones.Itisalsonon‐tonicalbecauseitcontainseithernoperfectfourth ornoperfectfifth. [13] The whole‐tone and octatonic scales can only be transposed to oneotherposition.Theyarebothoftenusedasmysterycuesinfilm andTV. [14]Theculturallyspecificuseofmodestosuggestgeo‐culturaliden‐ tityisoftenconfusedandethnocentricbutitcanstillworkonaudi‐ enceswhoarenottheobjectofthatidentification.
FFBk05Mel.fm. 2014-08-02, 01:53
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5.Melody MelodyderivesfromthetwoancientGreekwords:mélos(μέλος= song,orthemusictowhichasongisset)andōdé(ᾠδή=ode,song, poem). In English the word has three main meanings: [1] a mo‐ nodic1tonalsequence,accompaniedorunaccompanied,perceived as a musical statement with distinct rhythmic profile and pitch contour;[2]themonodicmusicalforegroundtowhichaccompani‐ mentandharmonyaregenerally,atleastwithinmostpopularmusic traditionsofEuropeandtheAmericas,understoodasproviding thebackground;[3]allsuchmonodictonalsequencesand/oras‐ pectsofmusicalforegroundwithinonecompletesong(e.g.‘Auld LangSyneisapopularScottishmelody’).Itshouldbenotedinthe latter case that mélodie, Melodie, melodia, melodi (French, German, Latin and Scandinavian languages respectively) can in popular parlancesometimesdenotetheentiretyofanytuneorsong,includ‐ inglyricsandaccompaniment,inwhichmelody,accordingtodef‐ initions[1]and[2],isaprominentfeature.
Definingparameters Generalcharacteristicsofmelody Itisdifficulttobepreciseorconsistentaboutwhichcharacteristics constitutemelodysinceitsdefinitionaccordingto[1]and[2]above is contingent on cultural consensus. Nevertheless, the following parameters, most of them documented by Stefani and Marconi (1992:13‐24),seemtodeterminewhatismorelikelytobepopu‐ larlyunderstood,atleastwithinamainstreamEuropeanorAmer‐ icancontext,astypicallymelodicaboutamonodictonalsequence: • easytorecognise,appropriateandtoreproducevocally; • perceptibleasoccupyingdurationsresemblingthoseofnormal orextendedexhalation(the‘extendedpresent’,i.e.consisting ofphraseslastingbetweenabouttwoandtenseconds); • deliveredatarateusuallyrangingfromthatofmediumtovery slowspeech; 1. Monodic:(literally)havingonesinglestrand,strain,path,etc.
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• generallyarticulatedwithrhythmicfluidityandunbroken deliveryoftonalmaterialwithinonesequence:legatorather thanstaccato; • distinctlyprofiledintermsofpitch(melodiccontour)and rhythm(accentuation,metre,relativedurationofconstituent events); • deliveredwithregularityandmetricarticulationofbreathing; • relativesimpleintermsoftonalvocabulary; • tendingtochangepitchmorebyintervallicstepsratherthan byleaps; • spanningrarelymorethanoneoctave. Inotherwords,amonodictonalsequenceislesslikelytobeconsid‐ eredmelodicifitisnotclearlytonal,orifitisdifficulttoappropri‐ ate and reproduce, or if it is too long or too short; or if its constituentnotesaredeliveredtoofast,orifitconsistsofnomore thanoneortwoverylongnotes,orifitisbrokenupintoveryshort unitsconsistingofjustoneortwonotes,orifthereislittleorno metricalregularitybetweenphrases,orifitexhibitsnocleartonal or rhythmic profile, or if it is too chromatic, or if it contains too manylargeintervallicleapsorcoverstoolargeapitchrange.In‐ deed,itisforthefollowingreasonsthatmonodicsequencesofthe following types, even though they may exhibit some melodic traits,arelesslikelythan,forexample,nurseryrhymes,folktunes orjazzstandardstobeconsideredmelodic:rapdeclamationand Sprechgesang because of unclear tonal articulation, recitative be‐ causeofirregularmetricity,riffsbecausetheyaretooshort.Even so,someriffsaremoresingablethanthemelodiclinestheyaccom‐ pany(e.g.the‘verse’partsofSatisfaction(ex.109),Layla(ex.110) andHoochieCoochieMan(Waters,1970)),whilesomeliterallymo‐ notonousmonodicsequencesoftonesstillqualifyasmelody(e.g. theversepartsofSambadeunanotasó(ex.111),Unhommeetune femme(Lai,1966)andSubterraneanHomesickBlues(Dylan,1965a)). Moreover, important sections of some well known melodies are based on little more than repetitions or sequential variations of motifsalmosttooshorttoqualifyasmelodicphrases,forexample Volare(ex.112)andLesfeuillesmortes(ex.113).
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Ex.109.RollingStones(1965):Satisfaction
Ex.110.DerekandtheDominoes(1970):Layla
Ex.111.A.C.Jobim(1960):Sambadeunanotasó
Ex.112.D.Modugno(1958):Volare
Ex.113.J.Kosma:Lesfeuillesmortes
Metaphoricalnomenclature Thenatureofmelodycanalsobeunderstoodbyexaminingwords and expressions either commonly associated or partly synony‐ mous with melody. For example, melodic line emphasises the mo‐ nodicandsequential(horizontal)aspectsofmelodywhilemelodic phraseandmelodicstatementdrawattentiontotherelationshipbe‐ tweenmelodyandhumanspeechordeclamation.Motiveandmotif denote movement by definition and melodies are thought of as movement in two‐dimensional space — forwards, upwards, downwards,etc.—,oftenwithculturallyspecificpatternsofim‐
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plication(expectedorunexpectedcontinuation,seeMeyer1987), whilemelodicprofile,contourandfigurerefertoqualitiesofdistinct linearity,shapeandgesture.Strain,meaningtune,alsolinksmel‐ ody with notions of distinct characteristics (cf. ‘a genetic strain’) whilelay,anotherarchaicsynonym,isdefinedas‘asong’or‘short poemmeanttobesung’(OxfordConciseDictionary,1995). Tune,MiddleEnglishvariantoftone,highlightsmelody’stonalna‐ ture,whileair,inthesenseoftune,suggestsspeech,gestureand movement that have metaphorically taken off (‘melody hath wings’,‘volare‐cantare’,seeex.112),therebyemphasisingtheno‐ tionofmelodyasheighteneddiscoursetranscendingspeech. Thesetranscendentnotionsofmelodycaninturnberelatedtothe connotationsofmonodicpitcheddeclamationnecessitated,inthe interests of comprehension and before the invention of micro‐ phonesandPAsystems,byacousticsettingscharacterisedbylong reverberationtimes,forexamplethechantingofprayersandbibli‐ caltextsincathedralsandlargechurches,ortheMuʹezzin’scallto prayerfromtheminaretacrossthetownintherelativestillnessof dawnordusk.Theyarealsorelatedtotheeverydayobservation that emotionally heightened speech exhibits greater variation in pitchandresemblesmelodymorethandoestalkinginanormal voice. Inshort,melodyistonalmonodicmovement,temporalandspa‐ tial,whichis inextricably connected with human utterance,both gesturalandvocal.
Typologiesofmelody Structurally,melodiesresembleordifferfromoneanotheraccord‐ ingtoseveralfactors:[1]pitchcontour,[2]tonalvocabulary,[3]dy‐ namics and mode of articulation (incl. phrasing), [4] rhythmic profile,[5]metricandperiodicorganisation.Theycanalsobecate‐ gorisedin‘experiential’(aesthesic,perceptual,semiotic)categories (Stefani and Marconi, 1992: 111‐229). Structural and experiential typologiesareinterrelated.
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Structuraltypologies Pitchcontour Figure32showsthebasicpitchcontourtypesusedbyethnomusi‐ cologistsintheclassificationofmelody(Skog1977).Eachcontour typeisillustratedbythefollowingexamples:[1]rising–ex.114, 128(phrase1);[2]falling–115,128(phrase2)and[3]tumbling–ex. 116,117,118,129(bars1‐2);[4]V‐shaped–ex.119,120(bars3‐4),123 (bar1);[5]centric–ex.121,122;[6]terraced(falling)–ex.120(bars1‐ 2),123(bars3‐4)and[7](rising)–ex.123(bars2‐3),129(bars4‐9); [8]oscillatory–ex.124andthedoubleV‐shapeofex.119;[9]arched –ex.125,127(phrase2);[10]wavy–ex.126,127(phrase4‐6). Fig.32. Melodiccontourcategories
Boundariesbetweenmelodiccontourtypesarefluid.Forexample, the double V‐shape of ex. 119 has an oscillating character while partsofex.124’soscillatoryprofilehavetheshapeofaflatV.Simi‐ larly,manycentriccontours(ex.121‐122)canalsobeheardasoscil‐ lating,whilesome‘wavy’phrasescanbeheardasshortarcs(ex. 126,bars2‐4,4‐5).Moreover,a‘tumblingstrain’islittlemorethan anoverridingmelodicdescentwithinitialrisinganacrusisorwith intermediate,subsidiaryrisesinpitch(hence‘tumbling’).Itshould alsobenotedthatcertainstylesshowapredilectionforparticular contours,forexampleblues‐relatedstylesforthe‘tumblingstrain’ (ex.116‐118).
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Ex.114.ColePorter:IGetAKickOutOfYou(1934):rising
Ex.115.TheWraggleTaggleGypsies(Eng.trad.,cit.mem.):falling
Ex.116.MuddyWaters(citedbyMiani,1992);tumbling
Ex.117.NashvilleTeens:TobaccoRoad(Loudermilk,1964);intro,tumbling
Ex.118.Beatles:Can’tBuyMeLove(1964);tumbling
Ex.119.Ellington:SatinDoll(1953,startofmiddle8);V‐shaped
Ex.120.Warszawjanka(Polishtrad.):terraced(descent),V‐shaped
Ex.121.BillyJKramerandtheDakotas:FromAWindow(1964):centric
Ex.122.MarkSnow:X‐FilesTheme(1996);centric
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Ex.123.TheGrandOldDukeofYork(Englishtrad.);V‐shaped,terraced
Ex.124.Beatles:IfINeededSomeone(1965);oscillatory.
Ex.125.AckVärmelanddusköna(Swedishtrad.);arched(+terraceddescent)
Ex.126.P.DeRose:DeepPurple;wavy
Ex.127.Beatles:Yesterday(1965);wavy,falling,centric,rising
Pitchcontouraloneisnotenoughtodistinguishthestyleorchar‐ acter of one melody from another. Example 128 illustrates how tonalvocabulary,rhythmicprofileandmetricity,notpitchcontour, canbetheoperativedistinguishingfactors. Ex.128.(a)Misirlou;(b)E.Y.Harburg:Brother,CanYouSpareADime
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Ex.129.Vigneault/Rochon:Jechantepour(1978)
Tonalvocabulary Ex.130.GodSavetheQueen:commutationsoftonalvocabulary
Thepopulardeviceofputtingmajor‐keytunesintotheminorand viceversatestifiestothefactthatchangingtonalvocabularycan radicallyalterthecharacterofamelody.Example130showsthe firstsixbarsoftheUKnationalanthem’smelody:[1]asis,inthe major key (ionian mode) and with the same melodic contour, rhythm,metre,etc.,butinthefollowingmodes—[2]aeolian(or dorian);[3]phrygian;[4]HijazKar;[5]doh‐pentatonic;[6]la‐pen‐ tatonic(seep.160,ff.).Allthesevariantswouldmostprobablybe heard by members of the UK cultural mainstream as ‘ethnic’ or ‘folksy’: ([2], [5] and [6] as potentially ‘Celtic’, [5] as conceivably
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also as ‘Chinese’, [3] as vaguely ‘Spanish’, [4] as possibly ‘Arab’ and [6] as vaguely ’bluesy’. The same six bars could also be changed,withoutalteringotherparameters,tocreateawhole‐tone oroctatonicmode,orevenadodecaphonictonerowifyouwanted toproduceamoreunsettlingeffectonyourlisteners.
Dynamicsandmodeofarticulation Thestructureandcharacterofamelodyaredeterminedalsoby[1] howloudorsoftitispresentedinpartorasawhole(yellingand crooning the same tune produces radically different effects); [2] whattimbreorinstrumentisusedtoarticulateit—imagineLed Zeppelin’s Whole Lotta Love delivered bel canto, or your national anthemplayedonkazoo;[3]inwhattessituraitisexecuted(influ‐ ences whether it will sound growled or screeched, squeaky and strained);[4]iflyricsareincluded,whatkindofaccentanddiction areused—imagineQueenElizabethIIdeliveringaGrandmaster Flash‘message’,orastirringunionsongcroonedbyBingCrosby ormumbledinthemannerofRadiohead’sThomYorkeintheverse partofCreep(1992). Thecharacteristicsofamelodiclinearealsodeterminedby[4]its phrasingandaccentuation.Examples131aand131bareofidenti‐ callength,melodiccontourandtonalvocabulary,butdiffersorad‐ icallyinphrasingthatex.131bneedsnotatingallabreve.Whereas theoriginalversion(ex.131a),withitsstaccatopunchandsynco‐ pation, is well suited to the funky trickster character played by EddyMurphyinBeverlyHillsCop,ex.131bresemblesmoresome lyrical or pastoral theme with an archaic flavour and would be moreappropriateplayedbystringsthanbyasynthesiserofmid nineteen‐eightiesvintage. Ex.131.Faltermeyer:AxelF(1984)–(a)original;(b)aslegatotune
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Rhythmicprofile Asmuchasshowingdifferenceinphrasing,example131alsoillus‐ trates how difference of rhythmic profile influences the affective character of melody. Rhythmic profile is also related to bodily movementandposture,aswellastopatternsoflanguage. Bodyandmelodicrhythm Example131a’srhythmicprofile—itsstaccatoqualitywithshort pauses,itslackofanacruses,itssuddendisjunctleapsforagogic effect,itsanticipateddownbeats(especiallybar4)—corresponds muchmorecloselywithskippingorjumpingmovementthanwith theflowing,legato,constanttypeofmovementimmanentinthe regularlymeasureddownbeatdottedcrotchets,crotchetsandup‐ beatquaversofexample131b. Ex.132.SongoftheVolgaboatmen(Russiantrad.)
Similarlinksbetweenmelodicrhythmandbodymovementcanbe foundinworksong.Forexample,theslow,heavytaskofhauling barges, with its repetitive to‐and‐fro of body and arms, is better helpedbythekindofsteady,measuredrhythmandshortphrases (aswellasrestrictedoscillatorypitchcontour)evidentinex.132 thanbythebrisk2/4or6/8call‐and‐responsepatternsofcontinu‐ ousmelodyspanninganoctavewhichcanbefoundinnumerous Britishshantiessungtohelpwithnauticalworkinvolvingquicker, morecirculartypesofmovement(‘capstan’and‘windlass’songs, thelattersungwhenhoistingsailswithawinch).A‐Roving,Billy Boy(ex.133),BoundForTheRioGrande,WhatShallWeDoWithThe Drunken Sailor (ex. 277, p. 398) Fire Down Below and Johnny Come DownToHiloallbelongtothiscategory.
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Ex.133.CapstanShantyBillyBoy(Englishtrad.,Northumbria)
Clearlinksalsoexistbetweenbodyandmelodicrhythmindance music.Thepolka,jig,reel,waltz,samba,cueca,rumba,tango,etc. exhibit unique and easily identifiable traits of melodic rhythm. Similar observations can be made about differences between the melodicrhythmoflullabies,marches,dirges,cattlecalls,fieldhol‐ lers etc. whose melodic rhythm tallies with the relevant type of bodilyactivityand/oracousticconditionsofthatactivity. Languageandmelodicrhythm Since melody is so often a matter of singing words, melodic rhythm is also determined by the rhythmic particularities of the languageinwhichthosewordsaresung.Forexample,amelodic phrasein6/8endinge|eq,especiallywithdescendingpitchcon‐ tour(ex.134at‘eldía’and‘cantaría’),islesslikelytooccurinEng‐ lish than in Latin language song, as evidenced by the following trisyllabicwordsandphrases:volare,cantare,amore,nelcuore(Ital‐ ian),querida,contigo,belleza,tequiero,llorando,tristeza,tansolo,en pena,tusojos,(Spanish).Ontheotherhand,phrasesin2/4or4/4 starting with the onbeat ‘Scotch snap’ | | or | | (‘inverted dotting’),especiallywithrisingpitchcontour,areunlikelytoap‐ pearinGermanicorLatin‐languagesongsimplybecauseEnglish isoneoftheveryfewEuropeanlanguagestofeaturethistrait(e.g. ‘mother’,‘brother’,‘doit’,‘hitit’,or,inex.135,at‘Jenny’,‘body’, ‘pettie’,‘coatie’,‘coming’). Ex.134.Ferlosio:Elgallonegro.
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Ex.135.Comin’ThroughTheRye(Scot.trad.)
Culturallyspecificmelodicformulae Melodiescanalsoberecognisedasbelongingtoparticularcultures not only due to idiosyncrasies of language rhythm but also be‐ causeparticularturnsofmelodicphrasehavebecomebyconven‐ tion associated with those cultures. This observation applies to patternsofmelodicornamentation,forexampletheonbeatjjjq q figureoftenfoundinpopularnon‐SpanishnotionsofSpanishmel‐ ody(ex.136‐138). Ex.136.Librarymusicjjjq hispanicism1:Cordigliera(CAM(Italy))
Ex.137.Librarymusichispanicism2:Duncan:WineFestival(Boosey& Hawkes)
Ex.138.Librarymusichispanicism3:Haider:SpanishAutumn(Selected Sounds)
Similarly,Irishtraditionalmusic(ex.139)isoftenrecognisableby itsuseofquicksemiquavertriplets( or‘did‐dle‐y[day]’). Ex.139.Poitín(Irishtrad.)–semiquavertriplets
Butculturallyspecificmelodictraitscanbefoundinmoresubstan‐ tial patterns of pitchcontourand rhythmic profile.For example, pentatonicorhexatonicmelodiccadencesofthetype [ ]‐ are
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typicalofmanytraditionalmelodiesfromtheBritishIsles,(ex.140 bar3,firsttime;ex.97(p.173),bars7‐8and15‐16). Ex.140.SkyeBoatSong(Scot.trad.,cit.mem.)
Anothertypicaltraitisthemajor‐modedescentto ,asinbars4 and12ofMacpherson’sFarewell(ex.97,p.173)andinallthreeex‐ tractscitedasexample141.Norare < melodiccadences,asinthe SkyeBoatSong(ex.140),untypicalofthetradition. Ex.141.(a)Rossa’sFarewelltoErin(Irishtrad.);(b)TheBoysofWexford (Irishtrad.);(c)Soldier,Soldier(Englishtrad.)
Also quite characteristic for traditional melody from the British Islesistherepeatedfinal or ,asshowninexample142. Ex.142.Repeatedfinalnotecadenceformulae.(a)JohnBarleycorn(English trad.);(b)TheBanksofNewfoundland(Englishtrad.);(c)TheKerry Recruit(Irishtrad.);(d)TheBonnyLabouringBoy(Irishtrad.)
Strings of appoggiature, on the other hand, unusual in popular melody from traditional music from the British Isles, are all the
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morecommoninpopularmelodyoftheeuroclassicaltradition(ex. 143)anditspastiches(ex.144),orofArabicorigin(ex.145‐146). Ex.143.Carissimi:Aria‘ITriumph!’(Vittoria!)
Ex.144.Abba:Fernando(1975)
Ex.145.Egyptiantrad.(quotedfrommemory)
Ex.146.Mameluk,a.k.a.Aya‐Zehn(Egyptiantrad.)
Finally,the ‐ cadenceistypicaloftraditionalRussianmelody (ex.147),while [Â]-#ê-ÛpatternsareanidiosyncraticofScandina‐ vianmelody(ex.148‐149).Griegbangshomethatpointthreetimes infoursecondsatthestartofhisfamouspianoconcertoinAminor (ex.150),usedasthethememusicforASongofNorway(1970). Ex.147.Russian5‐4‐1melodiccadences:(a)V.Soloviov‐Sedoy:Podmosko‐ vskoyeVechera;(b)Aturov:PartisanSong
Ex.148.Mikaelidagen(Swedishtrad.,cit.Ling,1964:114)
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Ex.149.Vårvindarfriska(Swedishtrad.)
Ex.150.Grieg:PianoConcertoinAminor,Op.16(1868:start)
Patternsofrecurrence Melodycanalsobecategorisedaccordingtothemannerinwhich constituentphrasesormotifsareorganisedintoalargerwholein patternsofvariationandrecurrence.Middleton(1983)suggestsa slidingscaleofmusicalsyntaxesstretchingfromthemonadic(cir‐ cular,mythic,unchanging,etc.)totheinfiniteset(linear,narrative, teleological,‘nothingtobeheardtwice’),ascalealongwhichany typeofmusicalstatement,includingmelody,canbeplaced. Ex.151.RoyMilton:Hucklebuck(1949).
MONADIC melody is typical for song whose narrative interestre‐ sidesinotherfactorsthanthosementionedsofar,suchasinchang‐ inglyrics,varyingmetre(e.g.chantedpsalms,prayers),harmonic progression (e.g. One Note Samba, ex. 111), rhythmic punch (e.g. Hucklebuck, ex. 151), etc. At the other end of the spectrum are thingslikethedodecaphonictonerow,constrainedbyavant‐garde imperativesofnon‐repetitionandabsentfrompopularsong.2In‐ stead, patterns of recurrence and difference vary from the rela‐
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tivelysimple,single‐layered(or‘immediate’)tothemulti‐layered (or ‘delayed’). Common processual devices in European and North American popular melody are reiteration, recapitulation, se‐ quence,inversion,anaphora,epistropheand‘ready‐steady‐go’.Theor‐ deringofmelodicsegmentsonalargerscale,forexampleintothe eight‐bar sections of a thirty‐two‐bar (AABA) jazz standard, is a questionofsongformratherthanofmelodictypology. REITERATION—consecutiverecurrence(s)ofaverysimilaroriden‐ ticalmotiforphrase—isfoundinexamples109and110(p.185, bothmelodiclineandriff),aswellasinexamples132(p.192,bars 1and2,bars5‐6and7‐8),136b(bar1,p.194),146(bars1‐2,p.196) and151(p.197,throughout). RECAPITULATION—recurrenceofmotiforphraseafterdifferentin‐ terveningmaterial—isillustratedatthemusematiclevelbyexam‐ ple132(p.192)inwhichthemotifofbars1and2recursinbar4 after different material in bar 3 and again in the final bar of the song. Melodic recapitulation is more commonly thought of on a largerscale,forexampleintermsofrecapitulatingtheAsectionof asonginAABAform,suchasthefirstlineofexample127(Yester‐ day,p.189)recurringafteraninterveningmiddlesection.However, recapitulationonthistimescaleismoreanissueofoverallsong formthanofmelodicprofile. SEQUENCE —reiteration of rhythm and relative pitch profile at a differentabsolutepitch—canbefoundinAutumnLeaves(ex.113, p.185),Elgallonegro(ex.134,p.193),Poitín(ex.139,p.194,bars1‐ 2,5‐6),Vårvindarfriska(ex.149,bars1‐2),andinGershwin’sFoggy DayinLondonTown(ex.152,p.199)where‘B’(bars1‐4)isrepeated afourthhigher(bars5‐8)and‘A1’(d-a$,bar3)actsasasequential variationof‘A’(c-e$,bar1). INVERSION(repeatingrhythmprofilebutsubstitutingupfordown andviceversa)alsooccursinexample152(p.199)whosebars9‐12 areanupside‐downvariantofbars1‐4. 2. Themostconcentratedoccurrenceofdifferenttonesinasinglephraseinpopu‐ larsongare,asfarasI’maware,theeightdifferentpitchesofthefirstbarofthe vocallineinJechantepour(Vigneault/Rochon,1978;ex.129,p.190).
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Ex.152.Gershwin:AFoggyDayinLondonTown(1937)adaptedfrom Middleton(1983:251).
ANAPHORA—repeatingthesameelementatthestartofsuccessive phrases—isinherentintermsofrhythmicandrelativepitchpro‐ fileinanysequentialrepetition(seeabove).Itcanalsorecuratthe sameabsolutepitch,asinthed-c#-d q q q figureofex.153(p.199) orthe e q(e)c-d figureofex.153b.Eventhesinglenotefrecur‐ ringatthestartofeachshortmotifinAxelF(ex.131)andrisingin turntodifferentpitches(a$, b$, c, d$, f)functionsanaphorically. Ex.153.Melodicanaphora—(a)Silvers:AprilShowers;(b)Akst:AmIBlue? asquotedbyMiddleton(1983:250).
EPISTROPHE—repeatingthesameorsimilarelementattheendof successivephrases—isfoundatthewords‘faraway’,‘heretostay’ and‘yesterday’ofbars3,5and7inYesterday(ex.127,p.189).
‘READY‐STEADY‐GO’isapopularmelodicdeviceconsistingofamo‐ tif,eithersimplyreiteratedorrepeatedbysequentialtransforma‐ tion (usually once or twice) and followed by new rhythmic materialorpitchpattern.Forexample,bars1‐2and3‐4ofAkst’s AmIBlue?(ex.153b,p.199)arerhythmicallyidentical(‘ready’and ‘steady’)butinsteadofleadingtoyetanotherlongheldnote,the sameanaphoricfigureinbar5introducesthetonallyandrhythmi‐ callydifferentmaterialofbars6and7(‘go!’).Thedevicecanwork
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atseverallevels,asshowninex.154(p.200).Thefunctionofsuch repetitionispropulsiveandsimilartothatofgainingmomentum bycirclingonthespotbeforehurlingadiscus. Ex.154.Rossini:WilliamTellOverture(1829)a.k.a.TheLoneRangertheme (1949);propulsiverepetition(‘ready‐steady‐go!’)
Connotativetypologies Families of melody definable according to the kind of structural parametersdescribedsofarcanbegroupedtogetherinmorecon‐ notativeorperceptualcategories.ConceptsliketheArabicmaqam, IraniandashtgahandIndianrāgaallexemplifytheformalisationof linksobservedinparticularculturesbetween,ontheonehand,cat‐ egoriesoftonal,rhythmicandmotivicstructureand,ontheother, certainregionallocationsorethnicgroups,orspecificmoods,atti‐ tudes,activities,typesofbehaviour,timesoftheday,etc.
‘Dream’ StefaniandMarconi(1992:111‐229)expoundseveralconnotative categories of popular melody in Western culture. These include ‘dream’, ‘desire and tenderness’, ‘meditation’, ‘supermusic’ and ‘recitation’. For example, the authors characterise ‘DREAM’ struc‐ turally in such terms as slow movement, smooth articulation, arched or waved pitch profile spanning a large range, phrase lengthwellinexcessofnormalbreathing,continuoustransforma‐ tionofmainmotif(s),unexpectedintervals,lackofhardscansion and accentuation, etc. More connotatively they note similarities withslowmotioncamerawork,softfocus,suspendedanimation, large spaces, fluid gestures like unpredictable flight, beauty, the unreal,etc.Thismelodiccategory,includingitsconnotations,isex‐ emplifiedbySchumann’sTräumerei(ex.155),DeepPurple(‘When the deep purple falls over sleepy garden walls’, ex. 126, p. 189), Stardust(ex.156),TheDreamofOlwen(ex.157)andInAMonastery Garden(ex.158).
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Ex.155.R.Schumann:Träumerei(1838)
Ex.156.Carmichael.Stardust(1929)
Ex.157.CharlesWilliams:TheDreamofOlwen(1947
Ex.158.Ketèlbey:InAMonasteryGarden(1915)
‘Supermusic’ Typical examples of SUPERMUSIC are the main themes from Star Wars (ex.159), Superman (ex. 160), Dallas, Dynasty, Kojak (ex.163), The FBI (161), Counterspy, The Gun Fight at O.K. Corral, How The WestWasWon(ex.162),TheChampions,etc.Theyarecharacterised bycrisparticulation,fortedynamics,amediumtobriskpace,brass instruments, ascending leaps of the fourth, fifth and octave, etc. Thissetoftropesisassociatedwithheroism(Tagg,2000:191‐200). Ex.159.J.Williams:StarWars(1977);maintheme
Ex.160.J.Williams:Superman(1978);frommaintheme
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Ex.161.B.Kaper:TheFBItheme(1965)
Ex.162.A.Newman:HowTheWestWasWon(1963);filmtheme
Ex.163.W.Goldenberg:Kojak(1972);TVtheme
‘Recitation’ RECITATIONisusuallyarticulatedmetricallyratherthanparlando rubato(recitative).Itischaracterisedstructurallybyarecitingtone towhichmostofthephrase’ssyllablesareset,aswellasbyaca‐ denceformulaand,often,aninitiallead‐inmotif.Recitationtunes aregenerallyofadeclamatorycharacter.Forexample,theunder‐ linedsyllablesin‘Howmanyroadsmustamanwalkdownbefore theycancallhimaman?’fromDylan’sBlowingintheWind(1963) arealldeclaimedatthefifth(ainDmajor).Theprincipleoflead‐in motif (intonatio/initium), reciting tone (tuba or tenor) and cadence formula(terminatio/finalis)isillustratedinexample164.‘Oncethe voiceisactivated’(intonatio)…‘itstaysstillinamannerofspeak‐ ing,givingnofurtherinformationaboutitselfanddrawingthelis‐ tener’s attention to the “message”, i.e. to the words’ (Stefani & Marconi,1992:132). Ex.164.‘Recitation’melody—(a)Latinpsalmody,tone2(plagal);(b)Brassens: Legorille(1952);(c)TheWho:PinballWizard(1969)
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Melisma Thisfinalsectionofthechapterdealswithaconceptthatcanbe quiteusefulwhendescribingmelodiclines.FromAncientGreek melízō(μελίζω=warbleorplayaninstrument), MELISMAmeansa stringofseveralconsecutivenotessungtoonesyllable.3Melismatic isusuallycontrastedwithsyllabic,thelattermeaningthateachnote issungtoadifferentsyllable.Melismaticandsyllabicareusedrela‐ tivelytoindicatethegeneralcharacterofavocallineintermsof notespersyllable,somelinesbeingmoremelismatic,othersmore syllabic.Itisdoubtfulifasequenceofnotessungstaccatotothe same syllable, for instance ‘oh‐oh‐oh‐oh‐oh’ in Peggy Sue (Holly 1957)orVamosalaplaya(Righeira1983),constitutesamelismabe‐ cause each consecutive‘oh’ is articulated asif it were aseparate syllable(staccato=detached,cutup).Amelisma,ontheotherhand, isexecutedlegato,eachconstituentnotejoinedseamlesslytothe precedingand/orsubsequentone(legato=joined).Sinceinhalation beforethestartofanewphraseconstitutesabreakinthemelodic flow,nomelismacanlastlongerthanthedurationofonevocalex‐ halation.Sinceseveralnotesaresungtoonesyllablewithinthedu‐ rationofonemusicalphrase,melismascontainnolongnotes. Melismaticsingingdiffersmorethansyllabicsingingfromevery‐ dayspeechinthatitisuncommontochangepitchseveraltimes, within the duration of one spoken syllable. When such spoken pitchchangedoesoccurinEnglish,forinstanceaquickdescend‐ ing octave portamento on the word ‘Why?’, it tends to signal heightenedemotion.Togetherwiththegeneraltendencytoregard melodyasaformofheightenedspeechtranscendingtheeveryday useofwords(p.183,ff.),itisperhapsnaturalthatmelismaticsing‐ ingisoftenthoughttoconstituteaparticularlyemotionaltypeof vocalexpression.Suchconnotationsarefurtherunderlinedbythe factthatsomeofthemostcommonwordstobesungmelismati‐ callyinEnglish‐languagepopularsongareexclamations(e.g.oh!, 3. Whiletwoconsecutivenotestoonesyllablehardlyconstituteamelisma,three or,better,fourormoresuchnotesaredefinitelymelismatic.
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ah!,yeah!4)orpotentiallyemotionalsyllableslikelove,feel,alright, pain,fly,cry,goodbyeandwhy?). Melismasoccurinmostmusicalcultures,forinstanceintheMuʹez‐ zin’scalltoprayer,inrajmusic,inthealapsectionsofNorthernIn‐ diandhrupadperformances,intheSaamijojk,intheRussianbïlinï, Ukrainian duma, Romanian doina, etc.5 They also occur in most plainchantsettingsofAlleluiaandKyrieeleison,aswellasatpartic‐ ularlyemotionalpointsinariasfromtheEuropeanoperaandora‐ torio repertoire. While Lutheran chorales are largely syllabic, a significantminorityoflow‐churchhymnsdofeatureshortmelis‐ maticpassages(ex.165). Ex.165.JesusChristisRis’nToday(MethodistHymnBook,1933,nº204)
ParticularlyinfluentialonthedevelopmentofmelismainAnglo‐ Americanpopularsongarevariousflorid,highlyornamented,of‐ tenpentatonicorhexatonicvocaltraditionsoriginatingintheBrit‐ ish Isles, i.e. the sort of vocal delivery found in Gaelic keening (caoine)andslow,soloballadsinginginthesean‐nósstyle(ex.166).6 Ex.166.ExtractfromCuilDuibh‐Re,asperformedbyDiarmuidO’Súillebháin (transcr.TomásO’Canainn,repr.inLing1997:92
These‘old’waysofsingingappeartohavebeentheantecedentsof thefloridvocallinesproducedbytheOldBaptistandsimilar‘dis‐ senting’congregationsoftheUSA’smiddlesouth(ex.167).7 4. See,forexample,LucaVitone’s20‐minutecollageof‘yeah‐s’(1998). 5. Forrajanddhrupad,see*Khaled(1992)and*Dagar(n.d.)respectively;forjojk, seeEdström(1977);fortheotherstyles,seeLing(1997:84‐9,106‐7). 6. Seealso*Moloney(1973)andHebridean‘homeworship’,ex.172,p.214,ff. 7. Seealso*Watson(1964)andWicks(1989).
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Ex.167.ExtractfromGuideMeOThouGreatJehovah,OldRegularBaptistcon‐ gregation;adaptedfromtranscr.inWicks(1989:73)8
Suchvocaltechniqueshavestronglyinfluencedthepopularmusic ofbothwhiteandblackUSAmericans,theformerthroughwhite gospelmusicintosongsbyCountryartistslikeDollyParton,Em‐ mylouHarris,BonnieRaittandGeorgeJones(Wicks1989),thelat‐ ter through black gospel singers into the mainstream of the international pop music market. The protracted, proclamatory ‘We—ll!’atthestartofShout(IsleyBrothers1959;Lulu1964)pro‐ videsanearlyexampleofthegospelmelismainAnglo‐American hitrecordings.SimilarmelismaswerenotuncommoninMotown vocallines(e.g.‘MrPo‐o‐o‐o‐stman’,Marvelettes19619andBeatles 1963),norinMerseybeatinfluencedbygospelstyles(ex.168‐169). Ex.168.Beatles:NotASecondTime(1963)
Ex.169.Searchers:Goodbye,MyLove(1965)
Sincethetypesofmelismamentionedherehave,sinceWorldWar II,beenmostwidelydisseminatedthroughrecordingsmadeorin‐ fluencedbyAfrican‐Americanartists,itisoftenassumedthatsuch melismatictechniquesareofAfricanorigin.However,giventhat 8. Seeextractfromhomophonicoriginalofthistuneasexample175,p.217. 9. Seeexample177,p.220.
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noneofthefortymusicexamplesinthechaptersdealingwithvo‐ callinesinAfricanmusic(Nketia1974:147‐174)containsyllables settomorethantwoseparatenotes,thepopularassumptionthat melismaticornamentationisinherently‘black’mustbechallenged inthesamewaythattheidentificationofthebanjo,aninstrument ofAfricanorigin,with‘white’musicmustalsoberegardedashis‐ toricallyinaccurate(Tagg1989). Inthe1980spentatonicmelismasderivingfromgospeltraditions became very common in recordings by solo divas like Whitney Houston who, for instance, on the word ‘much’ in the phrase ‘I wish I didn’t like it so much’ from So Emotional (Houston 1987), launchesintoafloridpentatonicmelismaconsistingofatleastsix shortseparatenoteseachtimethephraseoccursinthelead‐upto thechorus.Thesevirtuosotechniqueshadbecomesuchamanner‐ ismofabandonbythe1980sthattheywereeasilyparodied,forex‐ amplebyNileRodgersinthe‘SoulGlow’shampoojinglefromthe EddyMurphymovieComingtoAmerica(1988),orbyFrankZappa who,inYouAreWhatYouIs(1981),setprosaicconceptslike‘appro‐ priate’and‘postoffice’toecstaticallydeliveredpentatonicgospel melismas.
Summaryin11points [1] Melody is a MONODIC TONAL STRAND of music that is EASY TO RECOGNISE,APPROPRIATEANDTOREPRODUCEVOCALLY.
[2]MelodyoccupiesDURATIONSresemblingthoseofnormalorex‐ tendedEXHALATION—theEXTENDEDPRESENT. [3]Melodyisusuallydeliveredataraterangingfromthatof ME‐ DIUMTOVERYSLOWSPEECH. [4]Melodyisusuallyarticulatedwith RHYTHMICFLUIDITYANDUN‐ BROKENDELIVERYoftonalmaterial. [5]MelodyisDISTINCTLYPROFILEDintermsofpitchandrhythm [6] Melody tends to be SIMPLE IN TERMS OF TONAL VOCABULARY, changing pitch more often by steps rather than leaps and rarely spanningmuchmorethanoneoctave.
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[7]TYPOLOGIESofmelodycanbeSTRUCTURALORCONNOTATIVE. [8]ThemostcommonSTRUCTURALTYPOLOGYofmelodyisbasedon PITCH CONTOUR —rising, falling, tumbling, terraced, V‐shaped, arched,centric,wavy. [9]JUSTASIMPORTANTaspitchcontourtoamelody’sspecificiden‐ tityareTONALVOCABULARY,RHYTHMICPROFILE(includinglanguage rhythm),METRICITY,DYNAMICS,MODEOFARTICULATION,CULTURALLY SPECIFIC MOTIFS and PATTERNS OF RECURRENCE, including REITERA‐ TION,SEQUENCE,ANAPHORA,EPISTROPHE,etc. [10] CONNOTATIVE TYPOLOGIESofmelodyincludessuchcategories as‘Dream’,‘Supermusic’and‘Recitation’. [11]AMELISMAisastringofseveralconsecutivenotessungtoone syllable. Melismatic is usually contrasted with syllabic, the latter meaningthateachnoteissungtoadifferentsyllable.Melismatic singingisoftenthoughttoconstituteaparticularlyemotionaltype ofvocalexpression.
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FFBk06Polyph.fm. 2014-08-02, 01:53
6.Polyphony Theaimofthischapteristoprovideshortoverviews,including definitions,ofimportantconceptsthatrecurinthisbook: POLY‐ PHONY,DRONE,HETEROPHONY,HOMOPHONYandCOUNTERPOINT. Thetonalelementsdiscussedsofarhavebeentreatedeitheras generallyapplicableconceptsliketone,pitchand TUNING,orin termsofmonody,modesandmelody.Oneofthedefinitionsofmel‐ odywas‘themonodicmusicalforegroundtowhichaccompani‐ mentandharmonyaregenerally…understoodasprovidingthe background.’Bothharmonyandaccompanimentusuallyimplythat atleasttwonotesaresoundedatthesametime,i.e.thatthemusic ispolyphonic.Butwhatispolyphony?
Polyphony:threemeanings POLYPHONY,fromGreekpoly(πολύς=many)andfonē(φωνή= sound),canmeanthreethings:
1. musicinwhichatleasttwosoundsofdifferingpitchortimbre areheardatthesametime; 2. musicinwhichatleasttwotonesofclearlydifferingfunda‐ mentalpitchareheardsimultaneously—TONALPOLYPHONY. 3. tonalpolyphonyofthetypeusedbycertainEuropeancom‐ posersbetweenc.1400andc.1650. The third meaning, popular with teachers of euroclassical music history,isincongruousbecausethetypeofpolyphonyalludedtois justoneamongmany.Polyphonyusedinthethirdsenseisoftenop‐ posedtohomophonywhich,accordingtodefinitionsoneandtwo,is alsounmistakablypolyphonic(p.216,ff.).SincetheoutputofPal‐ estrina,ByrdorJosquindesPrezishardlywhatyou’remostlikely tohearonapolyphonicsynthesiser,polyphonywillnotbeused accordingtotherestrictivethirddefinitionbutaccordingtodefini‐ tions1—allpolyphony—or2—tonalpolyphony.
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Accordingtothefirstdefinition,anymusicfeaturingthesimulta‐ neousoccurrenceofsoundsforwhichnofundamentalpitchisdis‐ cernible can be called polyphonic, especially when such sounds areproducedbydifferentinstrumentsorvoicesarticulatingdiffer‐ ent rhythmic patterns. The notion of a polyphonic synthesiser rhymeswellwiththisgeneraldefinitionsincesuchinstrumentsal‐ lowforthesimultaneousoccurrenceofseveraldifferentnon‐tonal as well as tonal sounds, whereas monophonic synthesisers cater onlyforonepitchandtimbreatatime.Thisgeneraldefinitionof the term means that sound combinations such as drumkit pat‐ terns,orsolovocallineplushandclap/footstamp(likeJanisJop‐ lin’s Mercedes Benz (1971)), or fife and drum music (e.g. Royal WelshFusiliers,n.d.)canallbequalifiedaspolyphony. Theseconddefinitionofpolyphonyistonal.Inthissense,soloand unisonplayingorsingingwithouttonalaccompanimentwouldbe monophonicbutperforminginparallelintervalswouldbepoly‐ phonic.Asingleorunisonmelodiclineaccompaniedbyadroneis alsopolyphonicaccordingtobothdefinitions1and2. Thedegreetowhichmusiccanberegardedaspolyphonicisdeter‐ minedbytheculturalhabitatofthatmusic’sproducersandusers. Forexample,theconsecutivelyarticulatednotesofarpeggiatedgui‐ tar orpiano accompaniment are both intended and perceived as harmonyoraschordsratherthanasmelody.Thisprincipleisillus‐ tratedintheright‐handkeyboardconfigurationofthechordloop in The House Of The Rising Sun, shown as example 170a. The ar‐ peggiatedpatternmaybewrittenonenoteatatimebutit’snormal practicetoholdeachnoteineacharpeggiountilitisstruckagain, assuggestedfortheAminortriadinexample170b.Ifplayedon thepiano,thesostenutopedalwouldbedown,asinexample170c andeachnotewouldsounduntilrepeatedoruntilthepedalwas released. Besides, even if you played those arpeggios as written theywouldstillsoundmorelikeachordthanamonophonicline fortworeasons:[1]notesplayedinquicksuccessioninrecurring patternseachspanningnomorethanjustasecondortwobuilda
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single gestalt;1 [2] the notes are organised in regularly grouped units,eachunitcorrespondingtosoundsrecognisableasachordin theculturalcontextoftherelevantmusicalstyle. Ontheotherhand,thefastdescendingscalarpatternplayedonsi‐ tarattheendofaragaperformance(e.g.Shankar1970)mayfor similarreasonsofreverberationsoundlikeachordtoWesternears butitisbynomeanscertainthatsuchacascadeofnotesisinits originalcontextintendedtobeheardasachordorcluster. Ex.170 Arpeggiatedright‐handkeyboardfigures.(a)and(b)Animals:HouseOf TheRisingSun(1964):(a)asnotated;(b)asheard;(c)EltonJohn:Your Song(1971):firstchord.
Therearenumeroustypesoftonalpolyphony.Thischapterdeals verybrieflywiththebasicsofdrones,heterophony,homophony andcounterpoint.I’vecoveredthosetopicsinmoredetailelse‐ whereandharmony,thefavouritetopicofconventionalmusicthe‐ oryintheWest,isdiscussedinChapters7‐15.2
Drone Dronesarebasicallyongoingnotesthatsoundatthesamepitch throughoutpartorwholeofapieceofmusic.Theyoccurintwo basicforms,bothofwhicharemainlyusedasaccompanimenttoa melodicline,vocalorinstrumental,performedeitherinanother registerorbyanotherinstrument.Initsfirstformadroneisacon‐ 1. 2.
That’sbecauseofthephonologicalloop(seeGlossary;Tagg,2013:273).Agestalt isacompositeunitthatisperceivedasasinglewhole. Dronesandalternatetuningarediscussedonpages344‐353.Formoreabout homophony,heterophonyandcounterpoint,seethesections‘Syncrisisand socialanaphones’,‘Participants,strandsandlayers’,‘Syncriticorganisation andsocialmeaning’,‘Crossrhythm’,‘Group‐typemanifestations’and ‘Responsoriality’inChapter12ofMusic’sMeanings(Tagg,2013:446‐474).
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tinuouslysoundingsinglenoteorcombinationoftwonotes,such asproducedbymostsortsofbagpipes.3Whilethefirsttypeof droneisuninterruptedandcontinuous,thesecondhasarhythmic characterinthatnote[s]ofidenticalpitcharerepeatedatshortin‐ tervals.Dronesactastonalreferencepointandbackgroundforthe changingpitchofotherstrandsinthemusic.Theyareacommon featureinmanyformsofmusicthroughouttheworldandare moreusuallyinstrumentalthanvocal.Dronesarealsousedinvo‐ calandinstrumentaltraining(e.g.violin)asawayofimprovingin‐ tonation.4 Vocaldronescanbefoundin,forexample,theantiphonalrhythms oftraditionalhymnsingingfromTahiti(himene)aswellasinriff‐ ingvocalrepetitionsheardinsometypesofgospelsinginginthe USA(e.g.SwanSilvertones,1952:1:15‐2:00).Instrumentaldrones canbeproducedbythesameplayeronthesame(setof)instru‐ ment(s)thatperformthemelody,orbyaseparate(setof)instru‐ ment(s):bagpipes,hurdy‐gurdy,launeddas(Sardinia)andJew’s harpbelongtotheformercategory;didgeridoo(Australia),komuz (Kirghizstan)andtanpura(India)tothelatter. Somestringinstruments,suchasthevina(India)andothermem‐ bersofthelutefamily,areprovidedwithoneormoredronestrings tobepluckedatappropriatejuncturesforpurposesoftonalrefer‐ enceandrhythmicimpetus.Rhythmicdroneeffectsarealsopro‐ ducedbyfiddlerswhomakefrequent,oftenpercussive,useof openstrings(e.g.Robertson,1922;Ståbietal.,1965),bybanjoplay‐ ers(p.338,ff.)andbyguitarists,mostnotablywhenalternatetun‐ ingisinvolved(e.g.Hooker,1960;Mitchell,1971;SteeleyeSpan, 1971;Watson,1971;Cooder,1974;FolkochRackare,1976;Thomp‐ 3.
4.
Balkanbagpipes(gajda,kaval)generallyhavejustonedronepipe.Scottish greatpipe(Highlandbagpipe)dronesareinoctavesthatproduceastrong overtoneatthefifth.SmallBritishpipes(incl.Northumbrian)haveadronesat thetonicandfifth.Uileannpipes(Ireland)havethreenon‐melodypipes,the extrapipeprovidingamajorthirdthatisonlysoundedoccasionally. Foruseofdronestoimproveviolinintonation,seeMuresan(2012).
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son,1988).Thereismuchmoreonthistopicanditsrelationto ‘thirdless’harmonyinthesection‘Opentuninganddrones’on pages344‐353.Inthatconnectionitisworthnotingthata‘top‐ down’drone,with pitchedconsistentlyhighestintheaccompa‐ niment,statesthetonic‘root’ofeachsonority.Thismeansthat lowerparts,includingthebassline,maywellbeplayingnotesex‐ traneoustowhateverchordisidentifiedwiththedronedtonic. Theconnotativechargeofdronesvariesaccordingtoculturalper‐ spectiveandmediacontext.Intheheydayofeuroclassicalmusic droneswereoftenusedtoevokepastoralorbucolicsettings(e.g. Handel 1741; Beethoven 1808b; Alfvén 1904). More recently, droneshavebecomeincreasinglycommonandcanbeheardin,for example,folkrock,ambientand‘Celticmood’music,5aswellasin such styles as house, techno and other types of electronic dance music.Inthelattercase,thedrone’sconnotations,ifany,haveyet tobeclearlyestablished.However,theconnotationsofonelatter‐ daydronearequiteclear:the‘doomsdaymega‐drone’underscor‐ ingongoingthreatscenariosinsuchpopularTVproductionsasV (DeVorzon&Conlan,1983)orTwinPeaks(Badalmenti,1990).6 ItseemsthatthedronehasdeeperconnotationsontheIndiansub‐ continent. For example, Coomaraswamy (1995: 77‐80) describes the tanpura, the droned string instrument of much rāga music whichisheardbefore,duringandafterthemelody,as‘thetimeless andwholewhichwasinthebeginning,isnowandevershallbe.’ Theaccountcontinues:
5.
6.
Down‐tempo‘ambient’and‘Celtic’soundsareoftenassociatedwithsuch paramusicalphenomenaas‘chill‐out’,reflexion,bygoneruraldaysofyore, broadstretchesoftimeandspace,etc. ‘Doomsdaymegadrone’isanaptphrasecoinedinthelate1980sbyAnders Wintzéus(Göteborg)todenotethissortofthreateningsub‐bassrumble.InV (Warner,1983‐87)thedroneaccompaniedalienreptiles,bentonharvesting humansasfood,hoveringinhugeflyingsaucersoverworldmetropoles (mainlyLosAngelesofcourse).InTwinPeaks(1989‐91)anomnipresentevil anditsdoomsdaymegadroneconstantlyoppressedasuperficiallyidyllic mountaincommunity.
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‘Themelodyitself,ontheotherhand,istheshiftingcharacterof NaturewhichcomesfromtheSourceandreturnstoIt’…‘Harmo‐ nyisanimpossibilityforus,forbychangingthesolidgroundon whichNature’sprocessesrelywewouldbecreatinganothermelo‐ dy, another universe and destroying the peace on which Nature rests’.
Heterophony HeterophonyderivesfromAncientGreekhéteros(ἕτερος=other) and fonē (φωνή =sound). It meanspolyphony resulting from si‐ multaneousdifferencesofpitchproducedwhentwoormorepeo‐ ple sing or play more or less the same melodic line at the same time.Heterophonycandenoteeverythingfromtheunintentional polyphoniceffectofunsynchronisedunisonsingingtotheinten‐ tional discrepancies between vocal line and its instrumental em‐ bellishment which are characteristic of much music from the EasternMediterraneanandtheArabworld,asinexample171.7 Ex.171 HeterophoniccadentialformulainGreekTsamikomusic; (transcr.Chianis,1967)
Theclarinetpartinexample171createsmomentarydyadsinrela‐ tiontothemelody.Thosedyadsresultfromtheclarinet’sornamen‐ tation of the vocal line it so clearly follows (f-e-e-d-c-d). In heterophony,startandendpointsofmelodicphrasesnormallyco‐ incideintimeandpitch,withpossibleconvergenceatotherimpor‐ tantpoints,butintheshorttimebetweenthosepointsparticipants tracedifferentlinesinthesamemode.Suchtonaldifferencescon‐ stituteapolyphonythatisheterophonicratherthancontrapuntal orharmonic. 7.
InrecordingsofArabicpopularmusic,e.g.Kulțūm(1966),heterophonycan occurbetweenthesolovoiceandaccompanyingstringsorbetweenthewar‐ blesofthefluteandthelessembellishedstringparts.
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Heterophonyalsooccursinthefinalchorusoftradjazzperform‐ ancesand,moreelaborately,intraditional‘homeworship’from theHebrides(ex.172)whereeachfloridimprovisationonthesame hymntuneisthoughttopresenteachindividual’spersonalrela‐ tiontothesameGod.8Inotherwords,heterophonyinvolvesat leasttwoindividualswhomaybe‘sayingthesamesortofthingat almostthesametime’butnot‘withonevoice’. HeterophonyisalsoattheheartofmostformsofIndonesiangame‐ lanmusicinwhichseverallayersofheterophonycancombineto producechordaleffects(Hood,1980). Thefivevocalstrandsofexample172seemtobasetheirmelis‐ maticornamentationsonthefirstfourmelodynotesofapopular pentatonicandhomophoniclow‐churchhymntune(Martyrdom, ex. 173).Therelevantfournotesinexample172ared-g-e-d,i.e. Ûâ>Û,thesamescaledegreesastheinitiale$-a$-f-e$(‘Aspants theheart’)inthesopranovoiceofexample173(p.216). Ex.172 HebrideanHomeWorship:5‐voiceheterophonicversionofMartyrdom (Psalm84);transcr.ThorkildKnutsen(1968).
8.
SeealsoWicks(1989).I’moftenremindedofheterophonywhenItrytoconnect low‐voltagecontactpointswithtwowiresofdifferentlength.BothgofromA toBbuttraceslightlydifferentpathsbetweenthetwopoints.
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Homophony Ex.173 Martyrdom(CongregationalPraise,no.390,b.1‐8)9
FromtheGreekὁμόφωνος(homófonos= soundinginunisonorat thesametime),homophonyisthetypeofpolyphonyinwhichdif‐ ferent strands of the music (instruments, voices, parts, tracks) moveinthesamerhythmatthesametime.Homophonyisinother words the polyphonic antithesis of counterpoint. Even if example 173containsafewpassingnotesoccurringinsomepartsandnot others,10itisstillbasicallyhomophonicbecauseallsyllablesboth startandfinishatexactlythesametimeinallfourvoices.Example 174,however,is100%homophonic. Ex.174 Old100th(FrenchPsalter,1551)
Oneofthemostcommonhomophonictraitsinpopmusichasbeen singingorplayinginparallelthirdsorsixths(ex.169p.205)but,as thevoiceprofilesinexample174show(at‘earthdodwell’),con‐ trarymotionisinonesensejustashomophonicasparallelmotion. In conventional historical musicology, homophony is sometimes opposedtowhatisconfusinglycalledjust‘polyphony’,asifho‐ mophonywerenotatypeofpolyphonyandisifpolyphonyonly meant a particular kind of contrapuntal polyphony practised by 9.
ThetuneMartyrdomisattributedtoHughWilson(1766‐1824)andadapted byRobertA.Smith(1780‐1829). 10. Extranotesoccurinthesopranoandaltopartsinbar2(‘for’),inthealtopart inbar7(‘in’),inthetenoratbars1and3(‘the’,‘cool’)andinthebasspart(bar 7at‘the’).
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EuropeancomposersofthelateRenaissance(seep.209).Thiscul‐ turallyrestrictiveuseofthetermisproblematicbecausenoviable labelremainstodenotethesortofpolyphonyinwhichonevoice or instrumental part leads melodically while others provide chordal accompaniment. Moreover, chordal accompaniment in manytypesofpopularmusicischaracterisedbyriffs(bass,guitar, backingvocals,etc.)andthereby,asweshallsee,toasignificantex‐ tent contrapuntal. It would certainly be misleading to call such music‘homophonic’. Musiccanbeconsideredhomophonic(orcontrapuntal)onlyinrel‐ ativeterms.Forexample,althoughexample175,takenfromoneof themostpopularhymntunesinnonconformistChristianity,like examples173and174,fulfilsthecriteriaofhomophony,itisless homophonicthanexample174because:[1]eachvoiceinexample 175hasitsownmelodicprofile,producingbothcontraryandob‐ lique motion (bars 1‐2 and bar 3 respectively); [2] the alto, tenor andbasspartsinbars1and2includepassingnotesbelowlonger notesinthetune;[3]theexcerptendswithasmallcontrapuntalin‐ terventiononE7inthealtoandbassparts(bar4). Ex.175 CwmRhondda(refrain)(JohnHughes,1873‐1932)
Example176(p.218)exhibitsbothhomophonicandcontrapuntal traits.Whileleadsinger( )andbackingvocalist( )singhomo‐ phonically,theircombined,parallelmelodicstatementsarecoun‐ terpointedbybassline,drumkit(notshown)andbyflautodolce ostinatoinoctaveunisonwiththeviolins.Thismixtureofhomo‐ phonic and contrapuntal elements provides the basic texture for mostmusicinpop,rockandrelatedstylesofmusic.
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Ex.176 Abba:Fernando(1975):repeatandfade
Counterpoint Counterpoint (adj. contrapuntal), from Latin contrapunctus (origi‐ nally punctus contra punctum = ‘note against note’) means two things.[1]Itisatypeofpolyphonywhoseinstrumentalorvocal lines clearly differ in melodic and/or rhythmic profile. [2] It also means,byanalogy,theintentionalcontradictioninmusicofcon‐ currentverbalorvisualevents,especiallyintheaudiovisualme‐ dia.11Itisthefirstmeaningthatconcernsushere. Counterpoint is often understood as the horizontal aspect of poly‐ phony,harmonyasitsverticalaspect.Theproblemwiththisdistinc‐ tion is that since chords, the building blocks of harmony, are usuallysoundedinsequenceandsinceeachconstituentnoteofeach chordcanoftenbeheardashorizontallyrelatedtoanoteinthenext one (‘voice leading’), harmony frequently gives rise to internal 11. Counterpointalsodenotesthetechniquewherebymusicisusedtocontradict thefacevalueofconcurrentactionsorwords.Forexample,tohighlightessen‐ tialaspectsofthedramathatarenotvisibleorotherwiseaudible,Morricone, intheBertoluccifilm1900(1976),usesmusicinthemostdelicateandnoble veinofVienneseclassicismtoaccompanytwovisualsequencesshowingpeas‐ antsinabjectpoverty.Counterpointingcanalsobeusedironicallytoprovoke reflectivedistancingonthepartoftheaudience.Kubrick’suseofVeraLynn’s renditionofWe’llMeetAgain(1942)tounderscoretheatomicholocaustatthe endofDr.Strangelove(1963)clearlyillustratesthisphenomenon.
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melodies,someofwhichmay‘clearlydifferinmelodicand/orpro‐ file’, i.e. they will exhibit contrapuntal traits. Conversely, the si‐ multaneous sounding of lines with differing melodic profile entailsbydefinitionconsiderationofthemusic’sverticalaspect— itsharmony.Therefore,sincemelodicprofileisasmuchamatterof rhythm as of pitch, it is more accurate to consider homophony (musicwhosepartsmoveatthesametimeinthesamerhythm)as the polyphonic antithesis to counterpoint. Even so, polyphonic musiccanbeconsideredcontrapuntalorhomophoniconlybyde‐ gree,neverinabsoluteterms.Forexample,thefinalchorusinmost tradjazzbandperformancesofalmostanynumber(manyinstru‐ mentalistsimprovisingdifferentrhythmicandtonallinesaround thesametuneanditschords,e.g.KingOliver,1923),thoughpartly heterophonic,ismorecontrapuntalthantheprecedingsolos(one melodicline,abasslineandchordalrhythm).Suchfinalchoruses aredecidedlymorecontrapuntalthanconventionalhymnsinging (voicesmovingtodifferentnotesinthesamerhythm),muchmore so than doubling a vocal line at the third or sixth (following the samepitchprofileinthesamerhythm).Inshort,themorediffer‐ ences there are between concurrent parts in terms of melodic rhythmandpitchprofile,themorecontrapuntalthemusic. Imitativecounterpointofthetypetaughttocompositionstudents in Western universities is uncommon in popular music, even thoughwell‐knowncanonslikeFrèreJacques,ThreeBlindMice,Lon‐ don’s Burning and Row Your Boat must be among the most fre‐ quently sung songs in the world. Indeed, despite the fact that canonicsingingisalsowidespreadinsomepartsofAfrica,12the mostcommonformsofcounterpointinpopularmusicare:[1]the simultaneousoccurrenceofdifferentmelodiesintheoverlapbe‐ tweencallandresponse(ex.177,p.220);[2]thecontrapuntalinter‐ play between (a) melodic line, (b) accompanying or lead instrument,(c)bassline(ex.178,p.220). 12. Forexample,theEkondaofZaire,theShonaofZimbabwe,theJaboofLiberia; seeNketia,1974:144‐5.
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Ex.177 Callandresponseoverlap:PleaseMr.Postman(Marvelettes,1961
Ex.178 Melodicline,leadandbassinSatisfaction(RollingStones,1965)
AlthoughtheleadguitarandbasslinesinSatisfactionmaylooklike heterophonyinparallelfifths,theirtimbreandrhythmicpattern‐ ingarequitedifferent— (guitar)v. (bass).Moreover,bothpartscontrastwiththetwo‐note recitation‐toneprofileofthevocallineandwithitsrhythmicpat‐ tern .It’sallamatterofdegree.Themorediffer‐ encesthereareinpolyphonybetweenpartsorvoicesintermsof rhythm,melodicprofile,startandendpoints,etc.,themoreitwill be contrapuntal. The fewer the differences on those counts, the morehomophonicitwillbecomeuntilwearriveattunesinparal‐ lelthirds,parallelfifths(organum)13andparalleloctaves(unison).
13. Parallelorganum,thesingingofplainchantinparallelfifths,waspractisedin severalpartsofEuropebetweenc.800andc.1200.ExamplesfromMusica Enchiriadis(c.850)andtheChartresschool(11thcentury)aregiveninDavid‐ son&Apel(1949:21‐22).
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Summaryin7points [1] POLYPHONYismusicinwhichatleasttwosoundsofdiffering pitchortimbreareheardatthesametime. [2]TONALPOLYPHONYismusicinwhichatleasttwotonesofclearly differingfundamentalpitchareheardsimultaneously. [3] DRONES consist basically of ongoing or frequently recurring notesthatsoundatthesamepitchthroughoutpartorwholeofa piece of music. A drone usually demands just intonation of the otherpitchesitaccompanies. [4]HETEROPHONYispolyphonyresultingfromsimultaneousdiffer‐ ences of pitch produced when two or more people sing or play moreorlessthesamemelodiclineatthesametime.Heterophony iscommoninmusicfromtheEasternMediterraneanandtheArab world. [5] HOMOPHONYisatypeofpolyphonyinwhichdifferentstrands ofthemusicmoveinthesamerhythmatthesametime.Itisthe polyphonicantithesisofcounterpoint. [6] COUNTERPOINT is a type of polyphony whose instrumental or vocallinesclearlydifferinmelodicand/orrhythmicprofile.Itis thepolyphonicantithesisofhomophony. [7]Differencesbetweenhomophonyandcounterpointarerelative. Thereareoftencontrapuntalelementsinmorehomophonicmusic andoftenhomophonicpassagesinmorecontrapuntalmusic.
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7.Chords EvenifChapters3‐5weremainlyaboutmelodyandthemono‐ phonicaspectsofmode,itwasimpossibletototallyavoidmen‐ tioningchordsandharmony.Now,harmonyisnosideissueinthe restofthisbook:it’sthecentraltopic.Ifthatissowe’llneedavo‐ cabularycapableofdesignatingharmony’snutsandbolts.That’s whythischapterisdevotedtoexplanationofthechord‐naming conventionsusedintherestofthisbook.Andthat,initsturn, meansthatthisisnotadiscursivechapter.It’sintendedratherasa referenceresourcewhosecoreconsistsofthevariouschartsandta‐ blesdisplayingTERTIALchords,theirdesignationsandabbreviated labels(pp.227,230,236‐237,239).Pleasenotethat QUARTALhar‐ monyisdealtwithseparatelyinChapter10.1
Definitionandscope CHORD,fromGreekχορδή(chordē,Latinchorda),originallymeant thestringofamusicalinstrument.Eventually,chordcametode‐ notethesimultaneoussoundingoftwoormoredifferenttonesby anypolyphonicinstrumentorbyanycombinationofinstru‐ ment(s)and/orvoice(s).Thesimultaneoussoundingofnotesofthe samename,i.e.unisonpitchesorpitchesseparatedbyoctaveinter‐ vals,doesnotqualifyasachord.Atwo‐notechordisa DYAD,a three‐notechorda TRIAD,afour‐notechorda TETRADandafive‐ notechordaPENTAD.
Chordsneednotbeheardassuchbymembersofamusicaltradi‐ tionwhosepolyphonyemphasisestheinterplayofindependent melodiclines(counterpoint)muchmorestronglythanmusicinthe Westernpost‐Renaissancetraditionofmelodyandaccompani‐ ment.Inmosttypesofpopularmusicchordsaregenerallyre‐ gardedasbelongingtotheaccompanimentpartofthatdualism. 1.
InconventionalmusictheorythenotionsTERTIAL(todowiththirds)andTRI‐ ADIC(todowithtriads)areoftenconfused;seepp.254‐256forclarificationof thisissue.Seepp.297,299‐305fordetailsofdifferencebetweentertialand quartalharmony.
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Tertialtriads Tertialchordsarebasedonthestackingofthirds.TertialTRIADsare fundamentalharmonicbuildingblocksineuroclassicalmusic,in mostformsofjazzandinmanytypesofpopularmusic. A TRIADisanychordcontainingthreedifferentnotes.Thetertialcom‐ montriadisaparticular,andparticularlycommon,typeoftriad constructedastwosimultaneouslysoundingthirds,onesuperim‐ posedontheother.Asfigure33shows,cande(separatedbyama‐ jorthird)togetherwitheandg(minorthird)constitutethemajor commontriadofCmajor(c-e-g),whiledand f(minorthird)to‐ getherwithfanda(majorthird)makeaDminortriad. Fig.33.
TertialcommontriadsoneachdegreeofCionian/Aaeolian
Twotypesoftertialchordshorthandappearinfigure33:[1]LEAD‐ SHEETCHORDSHORTHAND(C, Dm, Em,etc.);[2]ROMANNUMERALS(I, ii, iii, IVetc.).Bothsystemsareincommoneverydayuse.Lead‐ sheetchordshorthand,explainedonpages233‐248,is‘absolute’in that,forexample,theabbreviationCdenotesamajortriadbased onc@andonnoothernote,Dmaminortriadbasedond@andno othernote,etc.Theromannumeralsystemis,however,‘relative’.
Romannumerals Romannumeralsareusedtodenotechordsandtheirrelationto thetonic(keynote)ofanykeyormode.Thissortofrelativechordal designationcan,withfewmodifications,betransferredtothe studyofanypolyphonicmusicforwhichakeynoteortoniccanbe established.Morespecifically,eachromannumeraldesignatesthe rootnoteofthescaledegreeonwhichthechordisbuilt.Forexam‐ ple,theupper‐caseroman‘one’(I)infigure33meansamajorcom‐ montriadwithscaledegree1( )atitsroot.InthekeyofC,where isc@,‘I’designatesnotthenotec@butaCmajortriadbuiltonc.2
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Minor triads are expressed using lower‐case roman numerals. As showninfigure33,‘vi’meansaminortriadonscaledegree6( ). IntheCmajorscale,theionianmode, isa@,so‘vi’meansanA minorcommontriad(Am).The‘i’underthat‘vi’infigure33des‐ ignatesthesameAminorcommontriad,exceptthatitisnow,as ‘i’,thetriadonscaledegree1( )inAaeolian(A‘naturalminor’). Thelowerlineofromannumeralsinfigure33revealsthatwhat wasthetonicmajortriadI(‘one’)inCmajorbecomes$III(‘flat three’)inAaeolian.It’sthesameCmajortriadasbeforebutthis timeinthekeyofAaeolian,notCionian.Itfurtherrevealsthatthe FandGmajortriadsthatwereIV(‘four’)andV(‘five’)inCionian are$VI(‘flatsix’)and$VII(‘flatseven’)inAaeolian.That’sworth knowingbecause $VI?$VII?i (orI)constitutesthehighlypopular aeoliancadence,nomatterwhichkeyyou’rein—F?G?Am(orA) inA,C?D?Em(orE)inE,A$?B$?Cm(orC)inC,etc.It’stheaeolian equivalent of the ionian cadence formula IV?V?I (F?G?C in C, A$-B$-E$inE$,etc.).Theserelationshipsshouldbecomecleareraf‐ terperusalofTable13(p.227). Themajortriadsinfigure33areC, FandG.Aswejustsaw,theyoc‐ cupyscaledegrees and intheionianmodeasthetriadsI, IV andVbutoccurondegrees and intheaeolianasthetriads $III, $VIand$VII.TheminortriadsDm, EmandAmareonscale degrees and intheionian(ii, iii, vi)andon and (iv, v, i)intheaeolian.Moreover,themajorscale’s (b@inC)andthe minorscale’s (b@inA)produceadiminishedtriad(vii°and ii°) thatisrarelyheardwithouttheadditionofafourthnote.Thetwo mostcommondiminishedtetradsarethediminishedseventh(e.g. CJ) and the half‐diminished chord (‘seven flat five’, e.g. C7L5). TheyappeartoprightinTable12(p.226).3There’sonetertialtriad that,unlikethethreetypesshowninfigure33,cannotbegenerated by superimposing two mode‐specific thirds. It’s the augmented triadandit’sincludedwiththeotherthreetypesinTable12. 2. 3.
Whenotherchord‐specificnotesthantherootarepitchedlowest,sucha chordiscalledaninversion(seep.229‐ iiéíÚandvii7L5 areverycommonintheeuroclassicalandjazzrepertoires.
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Table12:Fourtypesoftertialtriads(onc)+2diminishedtetrads
triadtype
thirds
fifth
notes
leadsheet
major
maj+min
perfect
ceg
minor
min+maj
perfect
c e$ g
C Cm CU /CP CJ/C °
augmented
maj+maj
augmented
c e g#/a$
diminished
min+min
diminished
c e$ g$/f#
Asshowninfigure33(p.224)andTable12,majortriadsconsistof aminorthirdontopofamajorthird(e.g.e-goverc-eforC),minor triadsofamajorthirdoveraminorthird(e.g.e$-goverc-e$forC minor),whileaugmentedtriadscomprisetwosuperimposedma‐ jorthirds(e.g.e-g#overc-e)anddiminishedtriadstwominor thirds(e.g.e$-g$overc-e$).Inprinciple,alltertialtriadsofthetype containedinTable12containarootnote,itsthirdanditsfifth.
Table13(p.227)showsleadsheetandroman‐numbersymbolsfor eachscaledegreeinallsevenheptatonic‘church’modes.4It’sin‐ cludedmainlyforreferencepurposeswhendiscussingchordse‐ quencesandfunctionsindifferentkeysandmodes.However, someaspectsofsymbolconventioninTable13needexplanation. [1]Sincethelocrianmode’stonictriadisdiminished(I°)andin‐ cludesnoperfectfifth,itisrarelyusedasachordin‘everydayto‐ nality’andwillbediscussednofurther.Ofcourse,thatdoesnot meanthatthelocrianmodeisneverusedmelodically;onthecon‐ trary,itisverycommoninheavymetal.5 [Textcontinueswith§2onpage228afterTable13.]
4. 5.
Seepp.98‐103forexplanationofdiatonic‘church’modes. Seepp.166‐167,esp.ftnt.20(p.167).
Tagg:EverydayTonalityII—7.Chords Table13:Roman‐numeraltriadsforallsevenstepsinall‘church’modes
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[2]Commontriadsbasedonscaledegreesinallmodesexceptthe ionianinvolveatleastoneroman‐numeralsymbolprecededbyan accidental,usually$.That’sbecausetheromannumberingofter‐ tialtriadscomesfromthetheoryofeuroclassicalmusicwhosede‐ faultmodeisionian.Consequently,theromannumberingoftriads inothermodeshastoindicatedivergencefromthationianstand‐ ard.6That’swhyinthisbook ‘III’,for example,alwaysmeansa major triad on , the major‐third scale degree in relation to the tonic, i.e. an E major triad in C, or a C# major triad in A, etc., whereas‘$III’designatesamajortriadon ,theminorthirdinre‐ lationtothetonic,i.e.anE$majortriadinC,aCmajortriadinA. Similarly,‘vi’alwaysindicateaminorcommontriadonthemajor sixth(#â),i.e.anAminortriadinC,anF#minortriadinA,etc. [3]Itisnotuncommonformusicinthedorian,phrygianoraeolian modetousea PERMANENTPICARDYTHIRDastonictriad:ibecomes I.Thetriadon canalsobe‘majorised’insomecases:vcanbe‐ comeV.Thesedevicesareexplainedonpages280‐288andmarked incolumns1and5(IandV)inTable13. Ex.179. I vi ii7 V7sequence(‘vamp’)inCandDmajor
Bearing in mind that pitches extraneous to the tertial common triad, most frequently the flat seventh, are expressed as super‐ scripted arabic numerals, it is clear that |I-vi-ii7-V7| designates thesamechordprogressioninanymajorkey,whereas|C Am Dm7 G7 |and| D Bm Em7 A7 |designatethesamesequenceintwokeys only(CandDmajorrespectively,ex.179).Similarly,arepeated|I$VII-IV|progression(C B$ FinC)isfoundasD C G(inD)through‐ outLynyrdSkynyrd’sSweetHomeAlabama(1974)andasG F Cat theendofTheBeatles’HeyJude(1968b;inG).Notethattertialtri‐ adsbuiltonpitchesforeigntotheionianmodemustbepreceded 6.
Ifchordsbasedon are‘$III/$iii’,thosebasedon shouldbe‘#III/#iii’. Reasonsforthe‘ioniandefaultinconsistency’aregivenonpages41‐42.
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by the requisite accidental, for example ‘$VII’ for a major triad builtonb$inthekeyofCmajor.Similarly,noteswithinatertial chordthatareextraneoustothecurrentkeyofthepiecemustalso beprecededbytherequisiteaccidental,e.g.‘ii7L5’forthesecond‐ degreeseventhchordinCminorwithdasrootandcontainingalso f, a$andc.
Inversions Ex.180. Cmajortriadinverted?
Inmostpopularmusicthelow‐ est note in a chord is usually alsoitsroot.However,inchoral settingsandinmusicstronglyinfluencedbytheeuroclassicaltra‐ dition, tertial chords are often inverted, i.e. the chord’s root note doesnothavetobeitslowest.Thefirstthreechordsofexample180 showaCmajorcommontriad[1]inrootposition(withcinthe bass),[2]infirstinversion(withitsthird,e,inthebass)and[3]in secondinversion(withitsfifth,g,inthebass).Thefinalchordofex‐ ample180isatetrad(achordcontainingfourdifferentnotes):itis aCmajortriadwiththeflatseventh(b$)inthebass,i.e.thetetrad C7 inthirdinversion(withitsseventh,b$,aslowestnote). Europeantextbookharmonysymbols,derivedfromfiguredbass techniquesofthebaroqueera(bottomlineofsymbolsinex.180), arelargelyincompatiblewiththewayinwhichchordsareunder‐ stoodbymostmusicians.Therefore,wheninversionsneedtobe referredtotheyaremostcommonlydenotedintheabsoluteterms ofleadsheetchordsymbols(toplineinex.180),sometimesinthe relativetermsofromannumerals,asshowninthelineofsymbols betweenthetwostaves,i.e.asIzÌforthetonictriadwithitsthird asbassnote,IzÙforthesamechordwithitsfifthinthebass,etc.
Recognitionoftertialchords Individualchordscanbeidentifiedandnamedaccordingtotheir constituentnotesandharmonicfunctions.Theycanalsoberecog‐ nisedphenomenologically.Table14listssomecommontertial‐ chordstogetherwithreferencestotheiroccurrenceinwell‐known
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piecesofpopularmusic.Italsoshows,whereapplicable,with whichmusicalstylesorwithwhattypeofmoodthechordsareof‐ tenassociated. Table14:Familiaroccurrencesoftertialchords(3½pages)
Firstandfinalchordofmostnationalanthems, WhiteChristmas(Crosby1942),theInternationale (Degeyter1871),BlueDanubewaltz(Strauss1867). ChordsinchorusofYellowSubmarine(Beatles 1966).HappyBirthday,lastchord.
m
(common) minor triad; ‘minor’
1stlongchordinPinkFloyd’sShineOnCrazy Diamond(1975).1stchordinItWon’tBeLong,She LovesYouandI’llBeBack(Beatles1963b;1964a). 1standlastchordinChopin’sFuneralMarch (1839).
+
augmented triad; ‘augmented’, ‘aug’
Gershwin’sSwanee(1919)at“howIloveyou!”. SecondchordinBeingForTheBenefitOfMrKite andFixingAHole(Beatles,1967)
added sixth chord; ‘six’, ‘add six’
1stchord,at‘Whenwhipperwillscall’,inMyBlue Heaven(Donaldson1927).1standlastchordin MackTheKnife(Weill,1928);inchorusofAlabama Song,at‘MoonofAlabama’(Weill,1927).Last ‘Yeah’inSheLovesYou(Beatles,1963b).
m6
minor triad with added (maj.) sixth; ’minor six’
FirstchordinverseofAlabamaSong,at‘Showus thewaytothenext’...(Weill,1927).Firstchord afterfanfareintheWeddingMarch (Mendelssohn,1843).
7
(dominant) seventh chord; ‘seven [chord]’
Penultimatechordinmosthymnsandnational anthems.FirstchordinBeatles’ISawHerStanding There(1963a),IWannaBeYourMan(1963c),She’sA Woman(1964d),Taxman(1966),GetBack(1969b).
7+
seventh chord with augmented fifth; ‘seven plus’, ‘seven ) aug’
ColePorter(1933):You’reBadForMe,upbeatto chorus.MilesDavis(1961):SomeDayMyPrince WillCome,secondchord,at‘day’.MaryHopkins (1968):ThoseWereTheDays,at‘werethe’(upbeat tochorus).Beatles(1969a):Oh!Darling,after ‘brokedownanddied’beforerepriseofhook.
6
jazz 1920‐40s
(common) major triad
style
full chord descrip‐ tion
chord short‐ hand
occurrences
Tagg:EverydayTonalityII—7.Chords
231
seventh chord with diminished fifth; ‘seven flat five’
Jobim(1963):GarotadaIpanema,penultimate chord;(1964): Sambadaunanotaso,4thchord;(1969); Desafinado,2ndchord.
bossanova, bebop,
^ or M or
major seven[th] chord; ‘major seven’
ColePorter(1932):NightAndDay,firstchordof chorus.ErrollGarner(1960):Misty,1stdownbeat chordofchorus.Beatles(1963d):ThisBoy,1st chord.TomJones(1965):It’sNotUnusual,1st chord.BurtBacharach(1968):ThisGuy’sInLove WithYou,1stthreechords.Beatles(1969a): Something,2ndchord.
jazzstandards, pop1960s‐70s,
minor Youmans(1925):TeaForTwo,firstchord(on‘tea’). seven[th] Bacharach(1964):WalkOnBy,firstchord.Beatles chord; (1965b):Michelle,secondchord;(1968a):Rocky ‘minor seven’ Racoon,1stchordinhook;(1969a):YouNeverGive MeYourMoney,firstchord.
jazzstandards, pop1960s‐70s
minor, major seven[th]/ ninth (or nine)
Hagen(1944):HarlemNocturne(the‘Mike Hammer’theme),firstdownbeatchordoftune. Norman/Barry(1962):JamesBondTheme,final chord.s
detective &spies
m7$5
minor seven flat five or half diminished
Addinsell(1942):WarsawConcerto,2ndchord. MilesDavis(1973):StellaByStarlight,1stchord. NatKingCole(1955):AutumnLeaves(Kosma),1st chordofmiddleeight.
dim
diminished seventh chord; ‘diminished’, ‘dim’
Beatles(1963b):TillThereWasYou, 2ndchord(at‘hill’); Beatles(1967a):StrawberryFields, at‘nothingisreal’.
romantic horrorchord &classics silentmovies.
9
(dominant) ninth chord; ‘nine’
Beatles(1964a):ThingsWeSaidToday,at ‘dreaming’(‘somedaywhenwe’redreaming’); (1969a):Because,highlightedchordat‘round’/ ‘high’/‘blue’.
swing bebop,
Hendrix(1967b):PurpleHaze,1stchord. Beatles(1969a):ComeTogether,start. BloodSweat&Tears(1969): SpinningWheel,firstchord.
rockc.1970, jazzfusion
M7
m7
m^7 m^9
+9
plus nine chord
style
full chord descrip‐ tion
7$5
chord short‐ hand
occurrences
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Tagg:EverydayTonalityII—7.Chords
major nine chord
Jobim(1963):TheGirlfromIpanema,1stchord.
m9
minor nine chord
Warren(1938):JeepersCreepers,1stchordof chorus.Weill(1943):SpeakLow,1stchordin chorus.Raksin(1944)Laura,1stchordinchorus.
jazz stands.
RighteousBrothers(1965):You’veLostThatLovin’ Feeling,1stchord.Beatles(1967b):She’sLeaving Home,at‘leavingthenote’,‘standingalone’, ‘quietlyturning’,‘steppingoutside’,‘meetinga man’;(1970):LongAndWindingRoad,atfirst occurrenceof‘road’.Abba(1977):Nameofthe Game,atrepeated‘Iwanttoknow’.
gospel,soul, fusion,post‐bop
11
chord of the eleventh; ‘eleven chord’, ‘eleven’
style
full chord descrip‐ tion
M9
chord short‐ hand
occurrences
m11
minor eleven chord
MilesDavis(1959):SoWhat,allchords. Goldenberg(1973):KojakTheme,firsttwochords undermelody.
post‐ bop
13
chord of the thirteenth; or thirteen chord
Degeyter(1871):Internationale,upbeattochorus. BigBenBanjoBand(1958):LuxembourgWaltz,1st chord(upbeat). Beatles(1969a):Because,justbeforeecstatic“Ah!” onDchord.
pre‐jazz, swing,
*9
major triad with added ninth
Bacharach(1970b):CloseToYou, 1stchord(at‘whydobirdssuddenlyappear?’); Nilsson(1974):WithoutYou,1stchord.
pop ballads
minor triad with added ninth; minor add nine
AlHirt(1966):MusicToWatchGirlsBy,1stchord. LionelRichie(1983):Hello,1stchord. Rota(1966):RomeoandJuliet, maintheme,1stchord.
sad,bitter‐ sweet
m*9
major triad in BeachBoys(1966):GodOnlyKnows,1stchord. second Foundations(1967):Baby,NowThatI’veFoundYou, inversion at‘loveyouso’.ProcolHarum(1970):Wreckofthe Hesperus,startofmajorkeysection. minor triad in second inversion
Simon&Garfunkel(1966):HomewardBound,2nd chord;Sinatra(1969):MyWay,2ndchord.
reflective ballads, ‘classical’
mzÙ
BeachBoys(1966):GodOnlyKnows,hooklineat ‘knowswhatI’dbe’.Foundations(1967):Baby, NowThatI’veFoundYou,at‘letyougo’and‘even so’.ProcolHarum(1967b):Homburg,3rdand4th chordsinintroduction.
‘classical’
/5
major triad in first inversion
‘classical’
/3
Tagg:EverydayTonalityII—7.Chords
BeachBoys(1966):GodOnlyKnows,at‘arestars aboveyou’.Foundations(1967):Baby,NowThat I’veFoundYou.ProcolHarum(1967):Homburg, 2ndchord.Abba(1974a):Waterloo,2ndchord,on theof‘oo’of‘AtWaterloo’inverse1.
major triad with major seventh in bass
ProcolHarum(1967): WhiterShadeOfPale,chord2. EricClapton(1974):LetItGrow,2ndchord.
suspended Beatles(1965a):You’veGotToHideYourLoveAway. fourth chord; RollingStones(1965):Satisfaction,2ndoftwo ‘sus four’, chordsinmainriff.MarvinGaye(1966):Ain’tNo ‘suspension’ Mountain,1stchordinintroduction.
‘classical’, pop1960s‐ reflective 70s
seventh chord in third inversion
‘classical’
S4
occurrences
style
/7
full chord descrip‐ tion
chord short‐ hand
7/7
233
Leadsheetchordshorthand G, D7, Em7, C#m7L5, B$S4, Am*9 andsoon:thesearejustafew examplesoftheshorthandusedtodesignateindividualchordsin manyformsofpopularmusic.Therestofthischapteraimstoex‐ plainhowthatsystemofchordlabellingworks. Leadsheetsaresheetsofpaperdisplayingthebasicinformation necessaryforperformanceandinterpretationofapieceofpopular music.Elementsusuallyincludedonaleadsheetare:[1]melody, includingitsmensuration,instaffnotation;[2]leadsheetchord shorthand,usuallyplacedabovethemelody;[3]lyrics,ifany.Such typesofwrittenmusicareusedextensivelybymusiciansinthe fieldsofjazz,cabaret,chansonandmanytypesofdancemusic. Leadsheetsconsistingoflyricsandchordshorthandonlyarecom‐ monamongmusiciansintherock,popandCountrymusicsphere. Leadsheetsoriginatedforreasonsofcopyright.Inthe1920s,the onlywaytoprotectauthorshipofanunpublishedsongintheUSA wastodepositawrittencopywiththeCopyrightDivisionofthe LibraryofCongressinWashington.Toprotecttherightsofsongs recordedby earlyblues artists,musicians hadtoprovide the Li‐ braryofCongresswithatranscriptionofthemelody’smostsalient
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features along with typewritten lyrics and basic elements of the song’s accompaniment (Leib, 1981:56).7 Such a document was calledaleadsheet,itsfunctiondescriptiveratherthanprescriptive, notleastbecause:[1]themostprofitablepopularmusicdistribu‐ tioncommodityofthetimewasnottherecordingbutthree‐stave sheetmusicinarrangementforvoiceandpiano;[2]mostbigband musiciansreadtheirpartsfromstaffnotationprovidedbythear‐ ranger.However,guitaristsandbassplayersofthethirtiesusually playedfromamensuratedsequenceofchordnames,i.e.from‘ba‐ sic elements of the song’s accompaniment’ as written on a lead sheet.Withthedeclineofbigbandsandtheriseofsmallercombos inpostwaryears,withtheincreasingpopularityoftheelectricgui‐ tarasmainchordalinstrumentinsuchcombos,andwiththeshift from sheet music to records as primary music commodity, lead sheets ousted staff notation as the most important scribal aide‐ memoire for musicians in the popular sphere. Other reasons for thesubsequentubiquityofleadsheetsarethat:[1]theirinterpreta‐ tiondemandsnomorethanrudimentarynotationalskills;[2]since theycontainnomorethanthebareessentialsofasong,anexten‐ sive repertoire can be easily maintained and transported to per‐ formancevenues. By LEADSHEET CHORDSHORTHANDismeant:[1]symbolsusedona leadsheettorepresent,descriptivelyorprescriptively,thechordsof asongorpieceofmusic;[2]thewidespreadsystemaccordingto whichmusicpractitionersmostfrequentlydenotechords. Since there are probably as many variants of lead sheet chord shorthandincirculationastherearemusicalsubcultures,itisim‐ possibletoprovideadefinitiveoverviewofthesystem.Still,even thoughafewofthesevariantsdivergefromthecodificationprac‐ ticesdescribedbelow,mostvariantsfollowbyandlargetheprinci‐ plesexpoundedinthischapter.Table15(pp. 236‐237)providesa 7.
AmongthoseartistswereSippieWallace,Bertha‘Chippie’HillandEvaTay‐ lor.AmongmusiciansprovidingthoseleadsheetswereGeorgeThomas,Rich‐ ardMJonesandClarenceWilliams.ThankstoPaulOliverforthis information.
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selection of fifty tertial chords and their lead sheet symbols, all withthenotecasroot.Table16(p.237)showshowtheshorthand translatesintospokenEnglishusedbymusicians.8
Leadsheetchordshorthandtable:explanations Table 15 (pp. 236‐237) charts fifty different chords based on the notec.Eachchordisidentifiedwith:[1]itsnumberinthechartso thatitcanbereferredtoconciselyfromthecommentaryfollowing thetables;[2]thestackofthirdsfromwhicheachchordderivesits lead‐sheet shorthand; [3] a valid way of spacing (voicing) each chord at the piano. The first section of the chart (p. 236) is pre‐ sentedinascendingorderofthenumberofthirdssupposedlycon‐ tained in the chords: first simple triads, then seventh chords, ninths,eleventhsandthirteenths.Thatpartofthetableisfollowed byaselectionofadded,suspendedandinvertedchords(p.237). Fig.34.
Symbols used inTable15 (overleaf)
ThetoplineinTa‐ ble15(overleaf)is notforplaying.As visualised in fig‐ ure34,itjustpresentsthestackingofthirdsatthetheoreticalbasis ofeachchord.Thelowertwostaves,however,presentaviableway ofplayingeachchordonapianokeyboard.Pleasenotethatthelit‐ tle‘8’underthetrebleclefofthepianopartfollowsthepracticeof notationforguitaristsandtenorvocalists.Thatmeansyourright handhastoplayeverythingoneoctavelowerthanwritten.Theleft handpartshouldbeplayedasnotated.Table16(p.237)spellsout thechordnamesinTable15.Thatisfollowed(p.238,ff.)byade‐ tailedexplanationoflead‐sheetchordshorthandanditsconven‐ tions.[Textcontinuesonpage238afterTable16] 8.
Forashortguidetotheaesthesicidentificationofchordsandforfullerstruc‐ turaldescriptionofcommonchords,seeTable14,(p.230,ff.).
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Table15:LeadsheetchordshorthandchartforC(1)
[Explanationsandtextcontinueonpage238afterTable16]
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Table15(cont’d):LeadsheetchordshorthandchartforC(2)
Table16:FullnamesofmostleadsheetchordsinTable15. chord
chordnº
CP or CU
3
Cplus,Caugmented,Caug Cdiminishedtriad
C°
4
C7, C9, C11, C13
5,13,22,26
C^ CM(7), C^9
7, 15
asspokeninEnglish
Cseven,Cnine,Celeven,Cthirteen Cmajorseven,Cmajornine
C7L5, C7Y5
10
Csevenflatfive,Csevenminusfive
C7U, C7+
9
Csevenaug[mented],Csevenplus
C9+ (C9U) C+9
19 18
Cnineplus(Cnineaug[mented]),Cplusnine
C13+11 (C11+13)
31
Cthirteenpluseleven(Celevenplusthirteen)
Cm7, Cm9, Cm11
6, 14, 23
Cminorseven,Cminornine,Cminoreleven
CmD, CmD9
8, 16
Cminormajorseven,Cminormajornine
Cm7$5, C% Cm7-5,
11
Cminorsevenflatfive,Chalfdiminished, Cminorsevenminusfive,
CJ or CJ7
12
Cdim[inished]
C6, Cm6
33, 34
Csix,Caddsix,Caddedsixth; Cminorsix,Cminoradd[ed]sixth
CS(4), CS9
37, 39
Csus(four),Cfoursuspension,Csuspended fourth,Csusnine
C*9, Cm*9
35, 36
Caddnine,Cminoraddnine
CzÌ, Cze
41
,Cdiminishedseventh
Cmajorfirstinversion,C(with)thirdinbass, C(with)ebass,Cfirstinversion
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[1] Table 15 (pp. 236‐237) contains one chord per ‘bar’. If two chords appear in the same ‘bar’ it’s because they’re one and the samechord.Forexample,CP9(nº99infigure34;orchords12and 18onpage236),canbewritteninradicallydifferentwaysdepend‐ ingontonalcontext. [2]Certainnotesmust,forreasonsexplainedlater,beomittedfrom certain chords, for example the major third (e@) in the C11 chord shown as nº 98 in figure 34. Such obligatory omissions are indi‐ catedbyanelongatedXthroughthenoteinquestion. [3]SometimesthepianopartinTable15missesoutnotesthatap‐ pearinthestack‐of‐thirdsrowwithno‘obligatoryomission’line throughthem(e.g.bothchordsinfigure34).
Basicrationaleofleadsheetchordshorthand Leadsheetchordshorthandhasanentirelytertialbasis.Sincethis systemofabbreviationevolvedduringtheheydayoftertialhar‐ monyinpopularmusic,itssimplestsymbolsdenotecommontri‐ adsbuiltonthedesignatednote(e.g.‘C’foraCmajorcommon‐ triad).Moreover,charactersplacedafterthetriadnametend merelytoqualifythattertialtriad,eitherintermsofnotesaddedto itorbydenotingchromaticalterationofanydegreewithinthe chordexceptfortherootanditsthird.Similarly,theodd‐number integersseenmostfrequentlyafterthetriadsymbol(7,9,11,13) representpitchesstackedinthirdsabovethetwothirdsalready containedwithinthetriad(1‐3,3‐5)onwhichamorecomplex chordisbased(e.g.C9containingb$andd—flatseventhandmajor ninth—inadditiontoc-e-g).Theshorthandsystemalsoassumes thatrootandbassnotearethesame.Developedinstyle‐specific contexts,leadsheetchordshorthandallowsfortheconciserepre‐ sentationofchordsinmanytypesofpopularmusic,forexample jazzstandards,chanson,Schlagerandmanytypesofpop,rockand Countrymusic.Thesystemis,however,cumbersomeandinneed ofradicalreformwhenitcomestocodifyinginversionsandto non‐tertialharmony(seeChapter10).
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Symbolcomponents Leadsheetchordsymbols(seeTable17,below)arebuiltfromthe followingcomponentsplacedinthefollowingorder:[1]notename ofthechord’sroot,presentineverysymbol;[2]triadtype,ifnot major;[3]typeofseventh,ifany;[4]ninths,eleventhsandthir‐ teenths,ifany,withorwithoutalteration;[5]alteredfifth,ifany; [6]addednotesoutsidethetertialstack,oromittednotesandsus‐ pensions,ifany;[7]inversions,ifany.Sincecomponents[2] through[7]areonlyincludedwhennecessary,chordsymbols rangefromverysimple(e.g. C, Cm, C7 )toquitecomplex(e.g. F#m6*9, B$Y13P9).Table17summarisestheorderofpresentation forsymbolsmostcommonlyusedinconnectionwithtertialchords containingneitheraddednotes,norsuspensionsnorinversions. Table17:Normalorderofcomponentsinlead‐sheetchordshorthand
A, B$, B, C, C#/D$, D, D#/E$, E, F, F#/G$, G, G#/A$
1:root note name chord/interval type
perfect
major
minor
augmented
diminished
m (=min/mi)
aug or +(5)
° [unusual]
[omit]
maj(7) or Δ 13
7 –13
2:triadtype 3:typeof seventh 4a:thirteenth b:eleventh c:ninth
11 9
5:fifth
–9
dim(7) or o (7) +11 +9 + or aug
–5 or $5
Notenameofthechord’sroot NotenamesmaybeinEnglish,asinthetoprowofTable17,orare writtenaccordingtoGermanicorLatinlanguageconventions.9 Englishrootnotenamesarealwaysinupper‐case. 9.
GermannotenamesarethesameasinEnglishexcept:[1]B8iscalledH,[2]B$ iscalledB,[3]F#,C#etc.arecalledFis,Cis,etc.,and[4]E$,A$,D$arecalled Ess,AssandDess.CDEFGAandBarecalleddorémifasollasiinFrench(a Latinlanguage),F#isfa#(fadièse)andB$issi$(sibémol),etc.
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Tertialtriadtype Noextrasymbolisnecessaryforstandardmajortriads:just‘C’on itsownisalwaysaCmajorcommontriad.Thequalifier‘MAJOR’ap‐ pliesexclusivelytosevenths,nevertothirds(seep. 240).Ontheother hand, ‘MINOR’ (‘m’) applies to the third and to no other note in the chord.Chordsbuiltasoronacommonminortriadmustinclude thetriadtypequalifier‘m’(or‘mi’or‘min’),alwayslower‐case,im‐ mediately after the chord root’s note name. For example, ‘Cm’ meansaCminorcommontriad,i.e.c-e$-g.10 Augmentedtriadsconsistoftwosuperimposedmajorthirds(e.g.ce-g#),diminishedtriadsoftwosuperimposedminorthirds(e.g.c-e$g$).Theadjectivesaugmentedanddiminishedqualifyinthiscaseal‐ terationofscaledegree5.Augmentedfifthsareusuallyindicatedby a‘+’,orby‘aug’(e.g.‘CP’,or‘CU’).Whilethediminishedtriadis uncommononitsown,theaugmentedtriad(CP, B$P,etc.)occurs quitefrequentlyinpopularmusic. Toavoidlinguisticincongruitieslike‘Amadd9’inchordshorthand —there’snothingmadaboutit—it’spreferabletowriterootname andtriadtypeinnormaltypeface,subsequentsymbolsinasmaller typefaceand/orassuperscript,forexample‘AmM7’or‘Am*9’.11 Typeofseventh Since,intheoftenjazz‐relatedstylesforwhichleadsheetsymbols wereoriginallydeveloped,theminor(flat)seventh(e.g.b$inrela‐ tiontoc)ismorecommonthanthekey‐specificmajorseventh(e.g. b@inrelationtoc),andsincethequalifier‘minor’isappliedexclu‐ sivelytothethirdintertialtriads,acommonmajortriadwithan addedMINORSEVENTHrequiresnootherqualificationthanthenu‐ meral7(Table15:5): FLAT SEVEN IS DEFAULT SEVENTHinthesame wayasdefaulttriadsfeaturemajorthirds.Ontheotherhand,ter‐ tial chords containing a key‐specific MAJOR SEVENTH need to be flaggedwithamajorΔ(Table15:7).SincemajandΔarereserved as QUALIFIERS OF THE SEVENTHandofnootherscaledegree,the‘7’ 10. Forotherminortriadsymbols,see‘Flat,sharp,plusandminus’onpage 246. 11. Freeleadsheetshorthandfontdownloadableat tagg.org/zmisc/FontKeys.html.
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maybeomittedinconjunctionwiththesesymbols(e.g.CMorC^ =CM7).However,thesimple‘7’isalwayspresenttodenotethe defaulttetradoftheseventhwhoseseventhdegreeisalwaysflator minor,seeTable15:5‐12). Seventhchordscontainingan AUGMENTED FIFTH indicatesuchal‐ terationby7+or7aug(Table15:9). DIMINISHED FIFTHSinseventh chordscontainingamajorthirdappearas7-5(‘sevenminusfive’) or7$5(‘sevenflatfive’,seeTable15:10).Seventhchordscontain‐ ingminorthird,diminishedfifthandflatseventh—m7$5,avery commonchordineuroclassicalandjazz‐relatedstyles—,areusu‐ allyabbreviatedm7L5orm7Y5,orsometimesjust%(‘minorseven flatfive’or‘halfdiminished’,Table15:11).Thedimchordconsti‐ tutesaspecialcase,containingbothdiminishedseventhandfifth, andismostfrequentlyindicatedbydimplacedstraightafterthe rootnotename,sometimesbyJ7,occasionallyby0or07(‘dimin‐ ishedseventh’orjustJ;Table15,chordno.12). Ninths,elevenths,thirteenths Chordsinvolvingninths,eleventhsandthirteenthsareassumedto include,atleasttheoretically,somekindoftertialtriadandsome kind of seventh (p.236: 13‐32). Chords containing elevenths pre‐ suppose the presence of a ninth, and thirteenth chords the pres‐ enceofaneleventhaswellasaninth,allinadditiontoaseventh andthemajororminortriadoftherootnote.Tosavespace,short‐ handdenotingallsuchchordsisusuallypresentedindescending orderofintervalsrequiringqualification—thirteenths,elevenths, ninths,fifths—oncetherootnotename,theminortriadmarker(if necessary)andthemajorseventhsymbol(ifnecessary)havebeen included(Table15:17‐32).Theonlyexceptiontothispracticeisthe chord containing major thirteenth and augmented eleventh (13+11)whichissometimesreferredtoinreverseorderas11+13 (p.236:31‐32).Shorthandforchordsofthethirteenth,eleventhand ninthincludenomentionoftheeleventh,ninthorseventhbelow them,unlessanyofthosedegreesdeviatefromtheirdefaultvalues (perfect eleventh, major ninth, minor seventh). For example, the ‘11’in‘C11’assumesthepresenceofthedefaultninthandflatsev‐
242
Tagg:EverydayTonalityII—7.Chords
enth(d andb$),whereasthe‘9’inCP11P9isincludedonaccountof itsalterationfromdtod#/e$. Certainnotesareoftenomittedfromninth,eleventhandthirteenth chords.Whilemostoftheomissionsarepreferential,oneisman‐ datory:removingthemajorthirdfroma‘major’elevenchordbe‐ causeofaninternalminor‐ninthdissonancecreatedbetweenthe majorthirdlowerinthechordandtheeleventhusuallyatthetop, forexamplethee@3againstthe f4inC11(seechord98inex.34,p. 235,nº22inTable15,p.236).12Otheromissionsrelatelargelyto register. For example, with an accompanimental register in the middleofthepianokeyboardandwithbassnotesusuallybetween one and two octaves lower, sounding the fifth in chords of the ninthandthirteenthcanoftensound‘muddy’.Itisforthisreason thatfifthsareomittedinchords17,18and26‐31onpage236. Alteredfifths Althoughsimpleaugmentedanddiminishedtriadsareencoded+ orauganddimor°respectively,thesymbolforalteredfifths(+and –5or$5)inchordsoftheseventh,ninth,eleventhandthirteenthis always placed last after all other relevant information (e.g. C7L5, Cm7L5, C7P,etc;seeTable15,chords9‐12,19‐21,page236).
Additionalsymbols Omittednotes Themorenotesachordtheoreticallycontains,themoredifficultit becomestospacethosenotessatisfactorilyonthekeyboardorgui‐ tar.Aswejustsawwiththe‘elevenchord’,theprincipleoftertial stackingevenleadstounacceptabledissonancethatcanproveim‐ possibletoresolvewithoutremovinganotefromthestack.Such removalalsoappliestoanythirteenthchordwhosetheoreticalter‐ 12. Theissueisnotinfacttheminorninthassuch(oneoctaveplusasemitone) becausetheminorninechord(CY9,no.17onp.236)isitselfdefinedbythe sameinterval.Itisratheraquestionofhowthedissonanceisspacedand whetheritisproducedinrelationtotherootortoanothernoteinthechord. IntheCY9onpage236therearetwooctavesandasemitonebetweentheroot notec2anditsminorninthd$4.
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tial stack contains an unaltered eleventh: that note is always left outofthirteenthchordsbasedonthemajortriad(p. 236,chords 26‐30).Similarly,theperfectfifthisoftenomittedfromthirteenth chordsaswellasfromcertainninthchords.13Alltheseomissions constitute standard practice and need not be indicated in lead sheetchords. One chord which was often understood to require indication of noteomissionwasthe‘bare’fifth,oftenusedasrockpowerchord and usually noted (inE)as ‘Eno 3’ or‘E omitG#’. A much less clumsywayofindicatingopenfifthsisusedbymetalmusicians whouseasimple‘5’,forexample‘E5’forthedyade@-b@,‘C5’forc andg,‘F5’forfandc,etc.(seechords1and2inFigure35,p.244). Addedninthsandsixths Addedchordsarethoseconsistingofasimpletriadtowhichan‐ othersinglenotehasbeenaddedwithoutinclusionofintervening odd‐numberdegreesthatresultfromtertialstacking.Forexample, *9andm*9chordsaretriadstowhichtheninthhasbeenadded withoutincludinganintermediateseventh(p. 237,chords35‐36). Similarly,thetwosixthchords(p.237,chords33‐34)arequalifiable asaddedbecausetheybothconsistofatriadtowhichamajorsixth hasbeenaddedwithoutanyinterveningsevenths,ninthsorelev‐ enthsmakingthemintochordsofthethirteenth.Itshouldbere‐ memberedthatthe‘m’in‘m6’referstotheminorthird,nottothe sixthwhichisalwaysmajor(e.g.Cm6 = c-e$-g-a@;p.237,chord34). Unlikeaddedninths,addedsixthchordsarerarelyindicatedwith theprefix‘add’beforethe‘6’. 13. Infact,themorenotesachordhastoinclude,themoredifficultitbecomesto spaceitsconstituentnotesinaconvincingwayandthemorelikelyitisthat pianistswillskipanotewhosepresenceisnotessentialtothesonicidentityof thechord.Guitaristsareprobablylessaffectedbytheproblem:notonlyisit impossibletoplayallsevennotesofathirteenthchordusingasix‐stringed instrument;itcanalsobehardtoconvincinglyaccommodateallfiveorsix notesinsomeninthandeleventhchords.Besides,sincebothguitaristsand pianistsplayinginthestylesinwhichthesesortsofchordoccur—bebopjazz, forexample—relyonthebassplayerformostrootnotesandfifths,problems ofspacingandinternaldissonancedecrease.
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Tagg:EverydayTonalityII—7.Chords
Suspendedfourthsandninths Suspensionsarechordsthatshouldberesolvedintoasubsequent tertialconsonance.Themostcommonsuspensionsinpopularmu‐ sic,sus4 andsus9,bothresolvetocommonmajororminortriads, thefourthofsus4toathird,theninthofsus9totheoctave(e.g.the finCS4totheeofCorthee$ofCm,thedinCS9tothecofCor Cm(resolutionsmarkedwitharrowsbychords37‐40onpage237). Theabsenceofanynumeralaftersusassumesthatthesuspension isonthefourth.Althoughadd9chords(p.237:35‐36)andsus9s (39‐40)maybeidenticalasindividualchords,sus9shouldtypi‐ callyresolveinthemannerjustdescribed,whileadd9neednot. Evenmoreimportantthanthedisinctionbetweenaddandsusis theuseofchordsthat,takenoutofcontext,maylookorsoundlike sus4, sus9oradd9butwhichinquartalharmonyarenothingof thesort.Chords3‐6infigure35arebasictriadsinquartalharmony andshouldbedesignatedassuggestedbelow,notaccordingtothe normsoftertiallybasedlead‐sheetchordshorthand.Forexample, chord5,below,isa‘Cfour’(C4,notCS4)andchord6an‘Ftwo’ (F2,notFS9orF*9).‘GÁ’,‘CÃ’,‘FÀ’,‘CÄ’andotherconventions ofquartalharmonyareallexplainedinChapter10. Fig.35.
Sixbasicquartaldyadsandtriadswithabbreviations
Inversions Inversionsoftertialchordsareexemplifiedbychords41‐45inTa‐ ble15(p.237).Everystandardtertialchordcontainsarootnote (‘1’),athird(‘3’)andafifth(‘5’).Iftherootnoteispitchedlowestof thosenotes,likechordnumbers1‐39inTable15,thatchordisin ROOTPOSITION.Ifthethirdislowest,forexamplethee@inaCmajor triadorthee$inaCminortriad,thechordissaidtobeinFIRSTIN‐ VERSION(e.g.chords41‐42inTable15:CzÌandCmzìÌ).Ifthefifthis lowest,thesamechordisinSECONDINVERSION,liketheg@inchords
Tagg:EverydayTonalityII—7.Chords
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43‐44:CzÙandCmzÙ.Tertialseventhchordscanbealsobeinverted ontheseventh,inwhichcasetheyareinTHIRDINVERSION,forexam‐ plechord45onpage237,aC7withb$inthebass: CzèorC7zb$. Inmanytypesofpopularmusic,inversionsmostoftenoccurasei‐ ther:[1]offbeatshuttlenotes,usuallythefifth,totherootnote,for examplethe‘pa’inbass‘oom‐pa’patterns;or[2]aspartorwhole ofapatternpassingfromonechordinrootpositiontothenext. Sincethesepassing‐notepatterns,ofteninvolvingathirdorsev‐ enth,arecreatedaurally,typicallybythebassplayer,withoutref‐ erencetonotation,nostandardleadsheetcodificationexistsfor thesepractices.Thislacunainlead‐sheetchordshorthandmakes chordlabellingdifficultineuroclassicalharmonycontexts. Onewayofindicatinginversionsis,assuggestedabove,towrite therelevantbassnotebyintervalnumberornotenamefollowing therestofthechord’ssymbolsandaforwardslash,forexample C7zÌ orC7ze,foraCsevenchordwithitsthird(e@)inthebass.In‐ versionsaudibleinpoprecordingsareoftenabsentfrompub‐ lishedleadsheetsandtendonlytobeindicated,ifatall,whenthey occuronanimportantdownbeatoritssyncopatedanticipation. Thesamegoesforchordsthatareheldorrepeatedwhilebass noteschangeinconjunctmotion.Forexample,abasslinedescend‐ ingchromaticallyfromCm toA$(chords47‐50onpage237)would firstpassthroughthechordlabelledCmzòèorCmzb@ .Thatindica‐ tionmaybeaccuratebutthechordisunlikelytobecalled‘Cminor withamajorseventhinthebass’or‘Cminoroverbnatural’,much morelikelytobethoughtofasa‘anotherCminor’,becauseit’s simplypartofthebassplayer’sjobtotakethemusicfromCmtoA$ inanappropriatemanner.Inanycase,youareunlikelytosee| D D/c# |Bm D/a |G^|aslead‐sheetshorthandforthefirstfivechordsin Bach’sAir(1731),howeveraccuratethatmaybe.You’dmorelikely seejust|D |Bm | G|.AsexplainedinChapter11,musiciansareex‐ pectedtocomeupwiththetonaldetailsbyearandfromexperi‐ ence.14
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Tagg:EverydayTonalityII—7.Chords
Anomalies Flat,sharp,plusandminus Sharpandflatsigns(#, $)aremainly reservedasaccidentalsqualifying therootnotename.Figure36shows the‘$’in‘E$9’indicatingthatthe rootnoteeitselfisflat(E$)andnotitsninth(f# becomingf@).Itis inthiswaypossibletodistinguishbetweenanEflatninechord, (E$9: e$-g-b$-d$-f),andanEminusninechord(E-9,i.e.E7withaflat ninth—e-g#-[b]-d-f@).Otherwisetheruleisthatinanychord,allal‐ tereddegreesapartfrom3and7(pp.240‐240)areindicatedby‘+’for anoteraisedbyasemitoneandby‘–’or‘$’foranoteloweredby onesemitone.C7L5andC7Y5areinotherwordsthesamechord.It shouldbenotedthatthereareconflictingconventionsconcerning theuseofthesesymbols.Forexample,the‘RealBook’usesminus signsinsteadof‘m’todenoteminortriads,flatandsharpsignsin‐ steadof‘+’and‘–’tosignalchromaticalteration. Fig.36.
E$9andEY9
Enharmonicspelling Leadsheetchordshorthandtendstodisregardtherulesofenhar‐ monicorthography.15Forexample,althoughthe$II?Icadenceat theendoftheGirlfromIpanema(Jobim,1963)mightappearasA$9L5 ? GM7onaleadsheetinG,thesame$II?IcadencewouldinE$ almostcertainlybespeltE9L5 ? E$M7ratherthantheenharmoni‐ callycorrectF$9L5?E$^.Similarly,distinctionisrarelymadebe‐ tweenchordscontainingafallingminortenthandthosewitharis‐ ingaugmentedninth.Theassumptionseemstobethatsinceboth +9and-10refertothesameequal‐tonepitch,thedifferencebe‐ tweenthemisimmaterial.+9(‘plusnine’)ismuchmorecom‐ 14. Infact,legalorillegal,onpaperortheinternet,publicationsofsheetmusic andof‘lyricswithguitarchords’arenotoriousforomittingchordaldetail intrinsictothesoundofthesonginquestion.Forexample,inthe(legal) WarnersheetmusicversionofLionelRichie’sHello(1985)notasingleAm*9 appearsaseithernotesoramongthe‘guitarchords’,eventhoughthatchord dominatesthesong’sverses. 15. Formoreaboutenharmonicsseep.484,ff.
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monlyusedthan-10(‘minusten’),evenifthelatterismoreoften enharmonicallycorrect.
Non‐tertialchords Sincenon‐tertialchordsdonotderivefromstackedthirds,theyare nottranslatableintoleadsheetshorthand.Apartfromopenfifths, alreadymentioned,thereareproblemsinencodingharmonies usedinsometypesofjazz,aswellasinsometypesoffolkmusic andavant‐garderock. Theperversehabitofcallingunsuspendedquartalchords‘sus‐ pended’hasalreadybeenmentioned(p.244)andisraisedagainin thechapteronquartalharmony(p.297). Anotheranomalyisthatmusiciansoftenconceptualisechordsof theeleventhandthirteenthbitonallyratherthanintermsof stackedthirds,forexampleC13P11 asaDmajortriadontopofC7; orC11asGm7orB$6withcinthebass.Nosatisfactoryconsensus existsastohowsuchchordsmightbemoreadequatelyencoded. Onepossiblesolutiontopartoftheproblemmaybetoreferto someofthesechordsinthewaysuggestedinTable35(p.244)and inthechapteronquartalharmony(p.297,ff.).
Summaryin7points [1]CHORDmeansthesimultaneoussoundingoftwoormorediffer‐ ently named tones DYADs contain two such tones, TRIADs three, TETRADsfourandPENTADsfive. [2] The two most common systems of chord designation are RO‐ MANNUMERALSandLEAD‐SHEETCHORDSHORTHAND. [3]ROMANNUMERALdesignationisRELATIVEinthatitindicatesthe scaledegree,inanykey,onwhichachordisbased(e.g.aCmajor commontriadisIinthekeyofCbut$IIIinA).LEAD‐SHEETCHORD SHORTHANDisABSOLUTE(CcanonlybeC). [4] ROMAN‐NUMERAL is mainly used to designate TERTIAL chords. LEAD‐SHEETchordshorthandisENTIRELYTERTIAL.
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[5]TherearefourtypesofTERTIALTRIAD:major,minor,augmented anddiminished. [6]Leadsheetchordsymbolsarebuiltfromthefollowingcompo‐ nentsplacedinthefollowingorder: • notenameofthechord’sroot,e.g.C; • triadtype,ifnotmajor,e.g.Cm, CP; • typeofseventh,ifany,e.g.C7, C^, Cm7, Cm^7; • ninths,eleventhsandthirteenths,e.g.CY9, Cm^9; • alteredfifth,ifany,e.g.Cm7L5; • addednotesoutsidethetertialstack,oromittednotesandsus‐ pensions,ifany,e.g.Cm6, C7S4; • inversions,ifany,e.g.CzÌ, Cze. [7]LEAD‐SHEETCHORDSHORTHANDcannotbeusefullyappliedinits curentstatetoquartalharmony.
FFBk08Harm1.fm. 14-08-02 01:53
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8.‘Classical’harmony Intro Morewordshaveprobablybeenwrittenaboutharmony,more hoursdevotedtoitsteachingandlearningthantoanyotheraspect oftonality.1Animpressivearsenaloftermshasevolvedoverthe last200yearsineffortstoputthechordalpracticesoftheeuroclas‐ sicalandjazzcanonsintotheoreticalsystemsthataresupposedto makesensetostudentswhocanthenhopefullymakeinformed choicesaboutwhattheywanttoembraceorrejectintheirownmu‐ sicmaking.Thesheervolumeofthatbodyofknowledgeisdaunt‐ ing2andbegsthequestionastowhysomuchofthisbookisappar‐ entlydevotedtothesametopic.
Themainproblemisthatharmonyisoneofthemostestablished subjectsinseatsofmusicallearningthataren’texactlyfamedfor seriousinterestintheeverydaytonalityofapopularmajority whosemusicalfareisnotnecessarilycompatiblewithwhatisnor‐ mallytaughtundertheheading‘harmony’.Therepertoirerestric‐ tionresultingfromthatlackofinterestiscertainlyunderstandable inconventionalteachingsituationsbecause’everydaytonality’in‐ volvesavirtuallyboundlessmass(andmess)ofmusicsinastateof fluxincompatiblewitharégimeof’robust’courseplanningand curriculumregulation.Undersuchconditionsit’smucheasierto relyonfinishedchaptersofmusichistory—theBaroqueandits figuredbasses,Vienneseclassicismanditssonataform,bebopjazz anditstritonesubstitutions,forexample—thantoflounderinthe largelyunchartedtheoreticalwatersofawidevarietyofpopular 1. 2.
Awebsearchfor|harmony “music theory”|produced30millionhits[140506]. Carefuljudgementisneededwhendecidingwhattoincludeandexcludein anoverviewofeverydaytonality.Ihave,forexample,excludedallreference toSchenkeriantheorywhichcanbeilluminatingforunderstandingharmonic principlesinaclassicalsymphonyorstringquartetbutwhichareunsatisfac‐ toryandcounterproductivewhendealingwithsongsthatcontainthreeor fourchordsand/ornounequivocaltonic.
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musics.Mypointhereisthatthere’snopointinthinkingabout,say, theLaBambachordloopinSchenkerianterms,orabout‘perfectca‐ dences’inaeolianormixolydianchordprogressions,orabout‘sus‐ pensions’inthequartalharmonyofTVjinglesorfolkrock(notto mentionBartók).Noneofthosephenomenaofeverydaytonality canbeunderstoodusingmerelythetoolkitprovidedbyconven‐ tionalharmonycourses.Andthat’swhy,inbrief,Chapter9,on non‐classicaltertialharmony,andChapter10,onquartalharmony, arenecessary. Thischapteron‘classical’harmonyisalsonecessary,evenifthere’s alreadysomuchaboutit‘outthere’because(threereasons):[1] ‘Classicalharmony’,inthesenseexplainedbelow(p.253,ff.),isa widelyusedtonalidiomineverydaytonality;[2]It’saverypartic‐ ularphenomenonofparticularinterestandinfluencethatneedsto beappreciatedasaspecifictonalidiominrelationtoothers;[3]It’sdif‐ ficulttoexplainthespecificsofnon‐classicaltertialharmony (Chapter9)andquartalharmony(Chapter10)withoutcomparing themto‘classical’harmony. Afterashortdefinitionandhistoryoftheword‘harmony’,this chaptercontinueswithanexplanationoftheterm‘classicalhar‐ mony’(p.253,ff.).Thatsectionalsodefines‘tertial’andunravels conventionalmusictheory’sconfusionoverthirdsandtriads.The importanceofsyntax,narrative,linear‘function’,voiceleading, theionianmode,modulationandtonaldirectionalityarethenex‐ plainedascentralcharacteristicsoftheidiom(p.256,ff.).Next comesalongersectionunderliningtheimportanceofthekeyclock (circleoffifths)andofcadencesincreatingasenseoftonaldirec‐ tion(p.259,ff.).Afterashortaccountofthepartialdissolutionof classicalharmony,thechapter’slastfewpages(p.271,ff.)arede‐ votedtoadiscussionofclassicalharmonyinpopularmusic.The chapterendswithabriefsummaryofitsmainpoints.
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Historyanddefinitions Harmonyseems,atleastinWesternmusicalcircles,tobeunder‐ stoodinthreeways.[1]Ingeneralitdenotescertainaspectsof tonalpolyphony,inparticularthoserelatingtothesimultaneous soundingofseveraltonestoproducechordsandchordsequences. [2]Harmonyreferstothechordalandaccompanimentalratherthan melodicorstrictlycontrapuntalaspectsofmusic,asinstatements like‘theharmoniesunderthattuneareverysimple’or‘thismel‐ odyisdifficulttoharmonise’.[3]Italsodenotesthetheoreticalsys‐ tematisationof[1]and[2],e.g.‘weallstudiedharmonyandcoun‐ terpointatuniversity’. FromtheAncientGreekwordἁρμονία,meaningajoining,mar‐ riageorarrangement,harmonía,inbothGreekandLatin,cameto meanagreement,concordand,inmusic,whateversoundedgood together.InmedievalEuropeharmonyinitiallymeantthesimulta‐ neoussoundingoftwonotesonly(dyads),inmuchthesameway asabackingvocalistsinginginparallelthirdswiththemaintune issaidtobe‘singingharmonies’.EuropeantheoristsoftheRenais‐ sanceextendedthenotionofharmonytothesimultaneoussound‐ ingofthreenotes,thusaccommodatingthe‘commontriad’,with itsthirdaswellasfifth.3Sincethentheteachingofharmonyhas largelyconcentratedonthechordalpracticesofmusicintheCen‐ tralEuropeantraditionoftheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies, i.e.oneuroclassicalmusicandwithpopularmusicstylescon‐ ceivedinthattonaltradition.4 Morerecentlythenotionofharmonyhasbeenpopularlyapplied toanymusicthatsoundsinanywaychordaltothemodernWest‐ ernear,forexample,thevocalpolyphonyofcertainAfricanand EasternEuropeantraditions,orthepolyphonicinstrumentalprac‐ ticesofsomeCentralandSouth‐EastAsianmusiccultures,even 3. 4.
See‘Triadsandtertialharmony’onpage 254;‘Tertialtriads’onpage 224,ff.; See‘Classicalharmony’onpage 253,ff;‘Classicalharmonyinpopularmusic’ onpage 271,ff.
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thoughchordsandWesternharmonymaybeneitherintendednor heardbymembersofthemusicalcommunityinquestion.More‐ over,whereaspopularEnglish‐languageparlancemayusethe wordharmonytodescribethingslikeamelodyplusdrone,ortwo voicessinginginparallelhomophony,conventionalmusicology tendstoreservethewordforchordalpracticesrelatingtotheeuro‐ classicalrepertoire.However,sincethetonalidiomsofeveryday lifeencompassawiderrangeofpolyphonicpracticesthanthose conventionallycoveredbyWesternmusicscholarship,itisappro‐ priatetoqualifyanytypeoftonalpolyphonyasharmony.Thiswider meaningofthetermletsusconsideravarietyofharmonicprac‐ ticesandthustotreatharmonicidiomasoneimportantsetoftraits distinguishingonesortofmusicfromanother. Onecentralproblemfacinganyonewantingtounderstandtheva‐ rietyofharmonicidiomsheardonaneverydaybasisisthatsome idiomsareclearlycodifiedinestablishedmusicteachingpro‐ grammesandthatothersarenot.SincemostWesternwritingon harmonydealswithonlyoneortwoofthoseidioms—notably classicalharmonyandjazzharmony—,cardinalproblemsarise whentermsdevelopedtodenotespecificfeaturesofcentralimpor‐ tancetothoseidiomsareappliedtoothertypesoftonalpolyphony inwhichthosesamefeaturesareabsentorirrelevant.Reciprocally, those‘other’tonalidiomscanexhibitimportantfeaturesthatmay beequallyalientothetraditionsonwhichtheestablishedcodifica‐ tionofWesternmusictheoryisbased.Thetroubleisthatmostfa‐ miliarWesterntermsdenotingmusicalstructureemanatefromeu‐ roclassicalandjazzacademies,andthattermsspecifictoother traditionsareeitherunfamiliarintheWest,oruncodified,orcha‐ otic,orevennon‐existent.5 Totacklethisproblem,I’llsuggestsometermsandmodelsde‐ signedtoredresstheterminologicalimbalancejustmentioned,but 5.
e.g.‘phrygiandominant’(irrelevant;p.133);‘Hijaz’(unfamiliar;pp.124‐142); ‘Gypsy’(chaotic;pp.133,139‐142),hexatoniclabels(unknown;p.169,ff.).
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it’sbesttobeginwithatheoryofeuroclassicalharmonyforthefol‐ lowingfourreasons.[1]Italreadyhasacodifiedbodyoftheory andformstheharmonicbasisofasubstantialamount(butbyno meansall)of’everydaytonality’.[2]Itcanserveasafamiliarstart‐ ingpointformanymusicstudents.[3]Itsuniquetonalidiomhas beengloballyinfluentialandneedsclarificationallowingusto makeviablecomparisonswithotheridioms.[4]Itsterminology needsdiscussionsothatusefulconceptscanberetrievedandprob‐ lematicnotionsdiscardedinaseriousaccountofothertonalities.
Classicalharmony Beforegettingdowntothenutsandboltsofactualharmony,two conceptualareasareinparticularneedofclarification:[1] CLASSI‐ CALHARMONY,[2]TRIADSandTERTIALHARMONY. I’musingtheexpressionCLASSICALHARMONYinthisbookbecause itdenotesthemostcommonpracticesoftonalpolyphonyfoundin thegloballyinfluentialbodyofeuroclassicalmusicoftheeight‐ eenthandnineteenthcenturies.Now,suchharmonyisalsocom‐ monlyreferredtoas‘triadic’,‘diatonic’,‘functional’,‘tonal’,etc., butthesequalifiersareallmisleadingsincetheycaneachbeap‐ pliedtoharmonicpracticesdivergingsignificantlyfromthoseof theeuroclassicalrepertoire,itsimmediateprecursorsandsucces‐ sors.Forexample,allharmonyusingthree‐notechordsisbydefi‐ nitiontriadic.It’salsodiatonicif,asisoftenthecase,itstonalma‐ terialcanbederivedfromaheptatonicmodecontainingtwoscalar stepsofasemitoneandfiveofawholetone.Moreover,allhar‐ monicidiomsarebydefinitiontonalandnonecaneverbedevoid offunction.Inshort,althoughmanypopularmusicstylesthrough‐ outtheworldmayfollowthebasicharmonicprinciplesoftheeu‐ roclassicaltradition,‘classicalharmony’isprobablytheleaster‐ raticwayofreferringtothoseprinciples.6 6.
Otherclassicalmusics(e.g.Tunisiannouba,Indianrāga)arenotchordal.
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Triadsandtertialharmony Duetotheimportanceofharmonicnarrativeineuroclassicalmu‐ sic,harmonictheoryhasbeenlargelydominatedbytermssuited tothedescriptionofthatparticulartypeofpolyphonicdynamic.7 Similarly,termsapplicabletoanytypeoftonalpolyphonyinmore thantwoparts/voices(e.g.‘triad’)havebecomesofixatedonphe‐ nomenapeculiartoclassicalharmonyandtoitsdirectsuccessors thattheyrequireredefinitionwhenotherharmonicidiomsaredis‐ cussed.Also,ahandfulofnewerconceptshavehadtobeincluded in the arsenal to denote phenomena for which harmonic theory previouslyhadeitheraninadequatenameornonameatall.One suchtermisquartalharmony(Chapter10),socalledbecause,from the viewpoint of euroclassical music theory, its most distinctive trait appears to be chords built on the stacking of fourths rather thanofthirds.Infactthestackingofthirdsseemstohaveneeded noqualificationaslongasitwasconsideredthenormfromwhich allotherpracticeswereseenandheardtodiverge;butsuchaview isuntenablewhendiscussingthevarietyofharmonicidiomsout‐ sidetheeuroclassicalmusictraditionandageneralstructuralde‐ scriptorforharmonybasedonthirdsbecomesessential.Therefore, ifharmonybasedonstackedfourthsiscalledQUARTAL,harmonycharac‐ terisedbythestackingofthirdswillbecalledTERTIAL(fig.37,p.255). ThehistoricallegacyofEuropeanclassicalmusictheoryisso stronginsomanyinstitutionsofmusicallearningthatsuchacom‐ monphenomenonasthetriad,whichalsooccursinotherhar‐ monicidioms,issonamedasifnotriadsoccurredin,say,Appala‐ chianbanjoplayingorinbimodalson.8Theratherobviouspointis thatifdyaddenotesachordconsistingoftwodifferentlynamed tones,thentriadmeansanychordcontainingthreesuchnotes,tet‐ radfour,pentadfive,andsoon.However,astheexpressioncommon triadsuggests,triadsbuiltonthesuperimpositionoftwoadjoining 7. 8.
Anexampleofincongruityarisingfromthatdominationistheuseof‘sus‐ pendedfourth’inreferencetoquartalharmony. See,forexample,ClarenceAshley(p.339),CarlosPuebla(p.442).
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thirdsaresocommoninclassicalharmonythattriadichas,incon‐ ventionalWesternmusictheory,cometoconfusinglyqualifynot chordscontainingthreedifferentnotes—triads—butchordsbuilt onthestackingofthirds.Thatisillogical,erraticandmisleading. Therefore,whenconsideringmusicinseveralharmonicidioms,in‐ cludingthoseassociatedwitheuroclassicaltradition,itisvitalto distinguishbetweenTRIADandTHIRD,justaswedistinguishbetween ’dyad’and’second’,orbetween’tetrad’and’fourth’.That’swhy chordsbasedon STACKED THIRDS,betheytriads,tetradsorpentads, willbecalled TERTIAL,andwhy TRIADwillmeananychord,tertialor not,containingthreedifferentlynamedtones. Fig.37.
Triadsandtetradsintertialandquartalharmony
Thetonalpolyphonyofeuroclassicalmusicisoftenregardedas havingdevelopedintoaformwhichbyaround1700crystallised intoanestablishedsetofpracticesthatwerecodifiedafterthe eventtobecomepartofthe‘theory’taughtinseatsofmusical learning.Itsestablishmentisassociatedwiththetransitionfrom contrapuntaltomorehomophonictypesoftonalpolyphonyin CentralEurope,andwiththeadoptionofthemelody‐accompani‐ mentdualismasabasiccompositionaldevice.It’sasetofpractices inwhichharmonyisgenerallyassociatedwithinstrumentalorvo‐ calaccompanimenttoaforegroundmelody,asisevidentinex‐ pressionslike‘backgroundharmony’,‘backingvocals’,‘underly‐ ingchords’,etc.Practicallyalleuroclassicalmusicusesharmonic practiceswhichalsoformthebasisoftonalpolyphonyinsuch commontypesofpopularmusicasoperetta,parloursong,music hall,waltzes,marches,hymns,communitysongs,nationalan‐ thems,romanticballads,Schlager,evergreens,jazzstandards, swing,bebop,etc.Thisbroadtraditionoftertialharmonyalsoper‐ vadessomestylesofCountrymusicandfilmmusic.Sincethistype ofharmony,which,forreasonsgivenonpage253,I’mcallingclas‐
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sical,hasexertedastrongglobalinfluenceoneverydaymusicmak‐ ingoverthepasttwohundredyears,itsbasicrationalewillneed someexplanation.
Syntax,narrative,andlinear‘function’ Classicalharmonyisgenerallythoughttoencompassthesequen‐ tial(horizontal,linear)aswellassimultaneous(vertical)aspectsof chords.Itisinotherwordsnotjustamatterofinstantaneousso‐ norityorofshort,repeatedchordsequences.Onthecontrary,one ofitsmostsalientfeaturesistheimplicationoftonaldirectionof noteswithinchords(fig.38,39,p.257),suchhorizontallinearity beinginstrumentalinelementalprocessesofmusicalnarrative (opening,continuation,change,return,closure,etc.)intheeuro‐ classicalrepertoire.Theimportanceofthesesyntacticanddiatacti‐ calfunctionsinthetraditionledinfluentialmusicologiststoqual‐ ifyitsharmonyas‘functional’(Funktionsharmonik).Although ’functional’isapatentmisnomerinthatiterroneouslyimpliesthat allotherharmonicpracticesaredevoidoffunction,itsinsistence onsyntacticfunctionunderlinesimportantdifferencesofexpres‐ sionandnarrativeorganisationbetweenEuropeanclassicalhar‐ monyandothertypesoftonalpolyphony.Howdoesitwork? Voiceleading,theionianmode,modulationanddirectionality InconventionalEuropeanmusictheoryaharmonicdissonanceis incrudetermsanychordthatisn’tacommontriadcontaininga rootnote,amajororminorthirdandaperfectfifth.Inclassicalhar‐ mony,dissonancesareusuallypreparedassuspensions(notessus‐ pended or held over from a previous chord) and resolved on to consonances(e.g.CS4?Cor?Cm,asinfigure38b),whileclosure isalmostalwayseffectuatedbytheperfectcadenceV?I(e.g.G7? C inC).Inthesebasicchordprogressionstheconceptofvoiceleading isparamountinthattheperfectfourthinrelationtothekeynote (e.g.thefofG7inC)usuallydescendstothethird(e@inC;fig.38) andthemajorseventh(e.g.theb@oftheGorG7chordinC)usually ascendstothekeynote(b@?c;fig.38).Thisvoice‐leadingbehaviour
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isnotarbitrary:itderivesfromthefactthatthemostpopulararray of notes within an octave during the rise and hegemony of the bourgeoisieinEuropewastheionianmode(the’majorscale’,e.g. ctoconthewhitenotesofthepiano). Fig.38.
LeadingnotesandvoiceleadinginC
The ionian is the only heptatonic diatonic mode to feature at the same time: [1] major triads on all perfect intervals of the scale (tonic,fourthandfifth—I, IV, V—e.g.C, FandGinCmajor,see Table18,p.267);[2]adominantseventhtetrad,containingatritone, onthefifthdegree(e.g.G7,containingf@andb@,stillinC);[3]semi‐ tone intervals, one ascending and one descending, which adjoin twoofthetonictertialtriad’sthreeconstituentnotes,i.e.leading note to tonic ( < , or b@#Î,orf>einC).Insimpleterms,theionianmode’sfourth( ) canbeheardaspullingdowntothemajorthird( )asemitonebe‐ low,whileitsmajorseventhorleadingnoteissocalledbecauseit isheardasleadinguptothekeynoteonesemitoneabove(# < ). This simple principle of voice leading endows the ionian mode with its unique qualities of tonal directionality. Unlike other modes,itstwoleadingnotesleadintwodifferentdirectionstoa consonanceonatonicmajortriad. Fig.39.
Ionianmode:leadingnotesanddirectionality
Although this ionian‐mode directionality is that of the V?I ca‐ denceanticlockwiseroundthecircleoffifths(e.g.G7?C,seep. 260, ff.),theionianmode’ssemitonescanalsogointheoppositedirec‐ tionbecausethethirddegreecanriseasleadingnotetothefourth (e.ge?finC,ex.39a)while (or )candescendto# (e.g.c>b@,fig.
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39b),whichalsohappenstobemajorthirdinasimpletriadonV (G).9Inthefirstinstance( < ,fig.39a),harmonicdirectiongoes anticlockwise(flatwards)inthat (e@)inthetonictriad(C)actsas leadingnotetoatriadonIV( < inFise@ inGisc>b@,ex.39d).9Clockwisedirectionround thecircleoffifths(e.g.fromCtoG;seep. 260, ff.)isusuallyen‐ hancedbyraisingthetonic’sfourthbyonesemitone(e.g.from f to f#intheD7chordofex.39d),suchalterationmakingforaclearer direction towards the dominant by introducing a second, rising semitone(f#a@)tounderlinethesubdominantaldirectionofthe semitonerisingtothekeynoteofthenewionianmode(e.g.e@fÈ).Similarly, ascendinga fifth andthendescending anoctave(e.g. ¢cÌgÈ) will end up on the same pitch as just descending a fourth (e.g. cÌ>g).Hence,aseriesofalternatelyfallingfifthsandrisingfourths, runninganticlockwiseroundthecompletecircleoffifthsvisitsevery noteinthetwelve‐tonechromaticscalewithintherangeofasingle octave(ex.41,line1).Thesameappliestoaseriesofalternatelyris‐ ing fifths and falling fourths running clockwise except that you havetocoveraneleventhbeforereturningtoc(fig.41,p.262). Although clockwise movement round the circle offifths traces an arcofrisingfifthsorfallingfourths,figure40isnevercalleda‘cir‐ cle of fourths’, probably because classical harmony’s overriding sense of direction towards closure depends entirely on anticlock‐ wisemovementthatvirtuallyalwaysculminatesinaV-Iperfectca‐ dence. This statement may seem evident in practice to jazz and
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euroclassical musicians but that familiarity can cause problems whentheV-Ianticlockwisepullofclassicalharmonybecomesso ingrainedandovertaught,soestablishedandunquestioned,that theabilitytocorrectlyhearorperformmusicbasedonothertypes of tonal polyphony can be seriously impaired. I’ll try to address that issue in the next chapter but it’s worth raising briefly here sincethecentralityofV-Icadencesinclassicalharmonyrelatesdi‐ rectlytothecircleoffifths.14 Fig.41.
Circlesc-cof(1)falling5ths/rising4ths;(2)rising5ths/falling4ths
Cadentialmini‐excursion Cadencesaremusic’smostcommontypeofepisodicmarker.In Chapter5(p.193,ff.)wesawhowdifferentmusicaltraditionssig‐ nalmelodicfinalityindifferentways.Thissectiondealswithhar‐ moniccadences. Therearefourmaincadencetypesinclassicalharmony,twoof whichtakeonestepflatwards,theothertwoonestepsharpwards roundthecircleoffifths.Havingrepeatedlyunderlinedthecen‐ tralityoftheflatwardsV-Iperfectcadenceinclassicalharmony,I feelitneedsnofurtherintroduction.Thatleavestheotherthree typestodiscuss.Thetwocadenceswhichproceedclockwiseare calledthehalfcadenceorimperfectcadenceandtheplagalcadence.The secondanticlockwisetypeisusuallycalledaninterruptedcadence. Thehalfcadenceissocalledbecauseitmarkstheharmonicchange fromItoVinextremelycommonharmonicschemeslikeI V V I 14. Forexample,phrygianprogressionsareoftenheardandperformedasifthey wereaeolianwithamajorthirdintheVchord(theclassical‘harmonic minor’);seenextchapter,p.291.Jazzmusicianstendtohearii‐V‐Ievery‐ where.PlusreftoPinkFloyd’sGreatGigInTheSky.
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(e.g.C G G CinCorA E E AinAover,say,four,eightorsixteen bars)inwhichV(the’dominant’)isobviouslythehalfwayhouse, asillustratedinexample181. Ex.181. Half/imperfectcadencehalfway:¡YvivaEspaña(Vrethammar,1973.
Atypicalhalfcadence,likethatinbars3‐4ofexample181,which proceedsclockwisefromItoVisacadencebecauseitharmonically marksarestingpointonadifferentchordtowhatcamejustbefore; anditishalfbecauseitmarksthatchangehalfwaythroughalonger harmonicscheme,suchastheeight‐barperiodofex.181.Itisan imperfectcadencebecauseithasnofinalityinthetonalidiomit uses.Bymarkingtheendofaphraseorsmallerpartofalarger unit,atleasthalfofwhichWesternlistenersknowisstilltocome, ithastheoppositeeffectoftheperfectcadenceV-I.Putsimply,half orimperfectcadences(I-V)serverathertoopenupharmonicproc‐ essesandperfectcadences(V-I)toclosethem.15 Plagalcadencesalsorunclockwise,butnotfromItoV:theytakein‐ steadthesinglesharpwardsstepfromIVtoI.Sincetheyendon thetonic,plagalcadencesareassociatedwithharmonicclosure,as demonstratedbytheiruseasthe‘Amen’chordformulaparexcel‐ lence(e.g.D?AinA).Thatsaid,itissignificantthatmedievalmu‐ sictheoristschosetheLatinwordfor‘oblique’(plagius,fromGreek plãgio˚meaningsideways,askance,misleading)todistinguish certainmodes,notchords,fromtheir‘authentic’variantsandit’s interestingtonotehowthesameadjectiveconnotingfalsitycame toqualifythechordal‘Amenending’fromIVtoI(e.g.D?A).Pla‐ 15. TheseobservationsareborneoutbytheFrenchandItaliannamesforhalf cadence:cadencesuspendueandcadenzasospesaliterallymeanthatharmonic completionhasbeensuspended,lefthangingintheair.
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galcadencesmayinotherwordsbeendingsbutEuropeanmusic theoryclearlydoesn’tconsiderthemtrue,authentic,direct,com‐ plete,full,finalorperfect.Thoseadjectivesareofcoursereserved fortheperfectcadenceleadingfromVtoI(e.g.E7?A).16 Interruptedcadencesdoexactlywhattheirnamesuggests:theyin‐ terrupta‘normal’V-IcadencebysubstitutingIwithacloselyre‐ latedchord,mostfrequentlythecommontriadondegree ofthe relevantkey,V?vi,forexampleE7?F#minA,whereF#misrela‐ tiveminor;or,lesscommonly,V?$VI(e.g.E7?FinAminor,where Fissubdominantrelativemajor).V?vi(or?VI)isofcourseanex‐ cellentwayofinterruptingtheinevitablebecausevileadsanti‐ clockwiseroundthecircleoffifthstoii,whichleadstoVand,with thefinal/full/perfectcadence,backtoI(inA:EtoF#m,thenF#m? Bm [or D] ?E7?A).It’sworthnotingthattheinterruptedcadenceisalso called‘deceptive’(trompeuse),‘avoided’(évitée),a‘falseconclusion’ (Trugschluss)anda‘trick’(inganno). IfanythingdemonstratesthesupposednormalityofV-Iclosurein institutionallyconventionalnotionsofharmonyitmustsurelybe thedistinctionbetweenqualifierslike,ontheonehand,half,incom‐ plete,plagal/oblique,interrupted,deceptiveandfalseand,ontheother, perfect/full(V-I).Yes,I’mmakingapleahereforharmoniccultural relativity;and,tostatemycaseasclearlyaspossibleinthismini‐ excursion,I’veincludedexample182asevidencethatthereneed benothingremotelyinterrupted,oblique, deceptive,false,unau‐ thentic,incomplete,orimperfectaboutafinalcadencelandingon vi(F#minor),therelativeminortriadofthesong’scleartonalcen‐ tre(IisunmistakablyAmajor).There’sevenaritenutotounder‐ 16. Byzantinemonksseemtohavebeenthefirsttosingleoutthesupposedly derivativemodeslikethehypodorianandhypomixolydianechoi.Hucbald,in hisDeHarmonica(c.880),isapparentlythefirsttohavedefinedplagalisinref‐ erencetomodes(Powers,1995).Whateverthecase,thenotionofplagalityhas averylonghistoryevenifitsusageandmeaninghavechanged.In2009,of course,veryfewpeoplewilllinkplagalwithitsetymologicalsecond‐cousin plagiarism(bothderivefromπλαγιος)orwithanythingelseaskance,oblique, falseorunauthentic.
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linefinality: insteadoftheusual .17Tobeblunt: classicalcadencecategoriesandassumptionsaboutharmonicdi‐ rection may be fine for the musical‐cultural practices on which suchconceptualisationisbasedbutitwouldbeabsurdtoassume thatthosecategoriesandconceptsapplytoalltypesofmusiccircu‐ latingonandailybasisinthemodernmedia. Ex.182. Uninterruptedfinalcadenceonvi:UmUmUmUmUm(WayneFon‐ tanaandtheMindbenders,1964:finalchorusandending).
Afterthatwarningaboutharmonicculturalabsolutism,it’ssafeto returnto‘businessasusual’withthecircleoffifths.It’salsoneces‐ sarybecause,asI’vealreadymentioned,there’salsoplentyofclas‐ sicalharmonyinthemusicwehearonadailybasis. Thekeyclock(reprise) In thecircle‐of‐fifths diagram onpage 260, keys andtheirsigna‐ turesarearrangedasthetwelvehoursofananalogueclockwithC majoranditsrelativeAminor(nosharpsandnoflats)attwelve o’clock,andF#/G$major,withtheirrelativeD#/E$minorandwith theirsixsharpsorflats,appropriatelyatsix.Movingclockwise,the numberofsharpsineachkeysignatureincreases(oneforGmajor atoneo’clock,twoforDmajorattwo,etc.)orthenumberofflats decreases(fiveforD$majoratseveno’clock,fourforA$majorat eight,etc.).Sincemovementclockwiseisbyascendingfifthsand sinceanincreaseinsharpsoradecreaseinflatsimpliesupward movement,thistonaldirectionsharpwards(fromItoV,e.g.CtoG) can be referred to as rising, while anticlockwise tonal movement flatwardstowardsthesubdominant(fromVtoIorfromItoIV,e.g. fromGtoCorfromCtoF)canbereferredtoasfalling. 17. UmUmUmUmUmUmwaswrittenbyCurtisMayfieldandfirstrecordedby MajorLance(1963).TheversesareinAmajoras,indeed,isthefirsthalfof eachchorus.TheLanceoriginalendswithafade‐outbuttheFontanacover leavesnotashadowofdoubtabouttheidentityofthetune’sfinalchord.
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Circle‐of‐fifthsprogressions Anticlockwise/flatwards Harmonicprogressionsroundthekeyclockarecommoninmany typesofpopularmusic(Table18).Thoserunninganticlockwiseor flatwards,(‘falling’)areparticularlycommoninstylesusingtheter‐ tialharmonicpracticesofjazzoreuroclassicalmusic.Twobasic typesofsuchprogressionexist(fig.42):[1]realormodulatory;[2] virtualorkey‐specific.Boththesetypesofanticlockwiseprogression involvethesamefinalV?Icadence(e.g.G7?C)becauseallunal‐ terednotesinthedominantseventhchord(V7,e.g. g b d f inG7) arecontainedinthemajorscaleofthetonic(e.g.Cmajor,contain‐ ingc d e f g a b).However,assoonasananticlockwiseprogression containsmorethanjustV?Iitwillhavetobeeitherreal/modula‐ tory,forexampleVI7?II7?V7?I (A7? D7?G7?CinC,fig.42a),or virtual/key‐specific,e.g.vi7?ii7?V7?I (Am7? Dm7? G7? CinC, fig.42b).Example42aconstitutesarealcircleoffifthsbecauseA7 (VI,thechordonthesixthdegree)istherealdominantseventhof D(II,ontheseconddegree)andD7(II)therealdominantseventh ofG(V).TheprogressioncanalsobecalledmodulatorybecauseA7 andD7bothcontainnotesforeigntothedestinationkeyofCmajor (c#and f#respectively).Ontheotherhand,thevirtualcircle‐of‐ fifthsprogression(ex.42b)canalsobecalledkey‐specificbecauseall notesinallchordsbelongtothesametonickey(e.g.Cmajor).It canbecalledvirtualbecauseneitherAm7 (vi7)norDm7 (ii7)are realdominantseventhsofsubsequentchordsintheprogression.18 Fig.42.
Modulatory(‘real’)andkey‐specific(‘virtual’)circle‐of‐fifthsprogres‐ sionsinC(falling/anticlockwise)
18. ChordshorthandisexplainedintheChapter7:romannumeralsonp.224,ff., leadsheetchordsonp.233,ff.
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Table18showsthatacertainpredilectionforrealcirclesoffifthsin US popular song from the 1910s and 1920s was superseded by preferenceforvirtualvariantsinstandardsandevergreensofthe thirties and forties. The virtual or key‐specific circle‐of‐fifths is moreoveradistinctivetraitofthebaroquestyle(Corelli,Vivaldi, etc.)andisalsoquitecommoninEuropeanpopularsongshowing classicalinfluences. Table18.
Examplesofanticlockwisecircle‐of‐fifthprogressionsinEnglish‐lan‐ guagepopularsong(Types:real,virtual,both[realandvirtual]) Song
Type
Anti‐clockwise(falling)chordprogression
SweetGeorgiaBrown (Pinkard1925)
real
(B7) E7 | E7 | A7 |A7 | D7 | D7 | G (III)-VI-II-V-I inG
TheCharleston (Mack,1923)
real
[B$] | D7 | G7 | G7 | C7 | F7 | B$ G7 | C7 F7 III-VI-II-V-IinB$
HasAnybodySeenMy Gal(Henderson,1925)
real
F | A7 | D7 | D7 | G7 | C7 | F D7 | G7 C7 III-VI-II-V-IinF
AllTheThingsYouAre virtual Fm7 B$m7 | E$7 A$^7 | D$^7•vi-ii-V-I-IVinA$ (Kern,1939) Cm7 Fm7 | B$7 E$^7 | A$^7•vi-ii-V-I-IVinE$ BlueMoon (Rodgers,1934) JeepersCreepers (Warren,1938)
MoonlightSerenade (Miller,1939)
virtual { E$ Cm7 | Fm7 B$7} E$ | (I)-vi-ii-V-IinE$ both
both
(a)Gm9 C9 F^9(b)Dm7 Gm7 C9 F6 | Gm9 C9 | (c)Am7L5 D9 Gm7 C9 F6 (a)ii V I(b)vi ii V I | ii V|(c)iii VI ii V I, allinF Bm7L5 EY9 | Am7 DY9 | Gm7 CY9 ||F +iv-VII-iii-VI-ii-V-IinF
AutumnLeaves (Kosma,1946)
virtual Gm7 C7 | F^7 B$^7 | E7L5 A7 | Dm iv-VII-III-VI-ii-V-iinDmin.
WindmillsofYour Mind(Legrand1968)
virtual E7 Am D7 G^7 C^7 F#m7$5 B7 Em I-iv-VII-III-VI-ii-V-IinEmin.
Bluesette (Thielemans,1964)
virtual [B$] | Am7 D7 | Gm7 C7 | F7 B$7 | E$ ii-iii-vi-ii-V-I-IVinB$
Yesterday (Beatles,1965a)
both
[F] | Em7 A7 | Dm | B$(Gm7) C7 | F vii-III-VI-IV(ii)-V-IinF
Flatwisekey‐clockprogressionsare,asshowninTable18andfig‐ ure43(p.268),frequentlyconstructedasachainofseventhchords
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(sometimesalsoninths,eleventhsorthirteenths).Figure43,which assumes thepresence of eachchord’sroot in the bass part, illus‐ tratesonewayofplayingsuchchainsaskey‐specificcirclesin[1] C major, [2] D major, [3] G# minor. To effectuate any complete key‐specificcircle‐of‐fifths,onestepinthebasslinehastobeadi‐ minishedfifth.It’sbetweenviiandIVinthemajorkey,betweenii andVintheharmonicminor,e.g.fromF^7toBm7L5inCmajoror inAminor.Eachoftheremainingsevenstepsisbyafallingperfect fifthorrisingperfectfourth.19 Fig.43.
Seventhchordsinkey‐specific(virtual)sequenceanti‐clockwiseround thecircleoffifths:(i)Cmajor;(ii)D$major;(iii)G#minor.
Playingkey‐clockprogressionslikethesedemandsaminimumof physicaleffortbecause:[1]stringedbassinstrumentsaretunedin fourths,facilitatingleapsofthefourth,fifthandoctave;[2]fifths, fourthsandoctavesareeasytopitchonbrassinstrumentsplaying abassline;[3]theconstituentnotesofanytwocontiguousseventh chords in a key‐clock progression are, with the exception of the root, either immediately adjacent or the same. This proximity of notesinconsecutivechordsmakesmatterseasyforkeyboardplay‐ ersandguitaristsintermsofhandandfingerpositioning. 19. ChordshorthandisexplainedinChapter7:romannumeralsonp.224,ff.,lead sheetchordsonp.233,ff.
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Clockwise/sharpwards:aprovisionalnote Clockwise(‘rising’)circle‐of‐fifthsprogressionsmaybelesscom‐ monthantheiranticlockwisecounterpartsbuttheydooccurquite ofteninpopandrockstylesusingcertaintypesofnon‐ionianhar‐ mony,amatterexploredmorethoroughlyinChapter13.Forex‐ ample,themixolydianchordloop{$VII-IV-I}runsclockwise (e.g.{B$ F C}),asdoallprogressionslistedinTable19.20 Table19.
Examplesofclockwisecircle‐of‐fifthprogressionsin English‐languagerockmusic
Artist:Song(detail)
Progression
Kinks:DeadEndStreet(1966;verse)
C G Dm Am — III VII iv iinAmin.
RollingStones:BrownSugar(1971; plagalextension,ex.183)
(D$)-A$ E$-B$ F-C(ex.183183) ($II-)$VI $III-$VII IV-IinC
RollingStones:JumpingJackFlash (1969a;at‘It’salright’.)
D A E B — $III $VII IV I inB
JimiHendrix:HeyJoe(1967a)
C G D A E — $VI $III $VII IV IinE
IreneCara:Flashdance(1983;verse start)
B$ F Cm Gm — $III $VII iv iinG minor
Ex.183. RollingStones: BrownSugar(1971).Clockwisecircle‐of‐fifthspro‐ gressionthroughplagalornamentationofaeoliancadence$VI-$VII-I.
We will return later to these sharpwards circle‐of‐fifths progres‐ sionsfromrockmusic.20Herewe’lljustfinishthisbasicaccountof classicalharmonyandofitusesineverydaymusic.
20. Clockwiseprogressionsarediscussedindetailonpp.417‐419,430‐436.
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Partialdissolutionofclassicalharmony HistoriansofEuropeanartmusictendtoagreethattheharmonic idiomofinfluentialcomposersinthelatterpartofthenineteenth centurybecameincreasinglychromatic.Wagner’sconstantmodu‐ lationsinthepreludetoTristanandIsolde(1859)andtheirlinkwith notionsofthe‘incessantprojectionof…longingwithoutsatisfac‐ tionandwithoutend’areoftencitedasanearlyexampleofthat trend(Newman,1949).ThesamediscourseaboutnarrativeinEu‐ ropeanartmusiccontinueswiththeideathat,startingaround 1910,exponentsoftwelve‐tonecompositionlikeSchönbergno longerconsideredcentraltonalreferencepoints(‘homekeys’)asa validprincipleforwritingnewtonalmusic.Thismeta‐narrative aboutdodecaphonicmusiccontributedtoawideningofthegap betweenpopularandartstylesofmusic.Jazzharmonyalsounder‐ wentaprocessofchromaticisationinthe1940swithbebop’sin‐ creasinguseofchordscontainingtwotritones,therisingaug‐ mentedfourth( )orfallingflatfifth( )providingyetanother leadingnotetotertialharmony’sascendingmajorseventhandde‐ scendingfourth.21 Therewere,however,othereuroclassicalreactionstolateRoman‐ ticchromaticism,tendenciesthatofferedmorelistener‐friendlyso‐ lutionstotheproblem.Someofthesealternativesarediscussed undertheheading‘Euroclassicalthirdlessness’inChapter10.De‐ bussy,forexample,oftenusedchordsassonoritiesinthemselves withouttheconstituentnotesofeachchordrequiringvoicelead‐ ingintothoseofthenextone,whilemusicinfluencedbyneo‐clas‐ sicism(e.g.Stavinsky,Hindemith)andbyinvolvementintradi‐ tionalmusicoutsideCentralEurope(e.g.Bartók)ledtoharmonic idiomsthatabandonedtheleading‐notefixationofclassicalter‐ tialutyinfavourofchordsbasedonthefourthandfifth.Similar developmentsoccurredlaterinsometypesofpost‐bopjazz,as wellasincertaintypesofrock.Inshort,eventhoughtwelve‐tone 21. See,forexample,the7L5and9L5chordsinTable16,p.237,ff.
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techniquesweresometimesusedformysteryorhorrorscenarios infilm,itwasthenon‐dodecaphonicaltertnativestoclassicalhar‐ mony,crumblingundertheweightofitsongoingmodulationsand busilychromaticchordchanges,thatweretoexertastronginflu‐ enceonseveraltypesofpostwarpopularmusic.22
Classicalharmonyinpopularmusic Maincharacteristics Tertialharmonyofthetypeusedinoperetta,parloursong, marches,nationalanthems,musicals,intraditionalchurchhymns (chorales),etc.largelyfollowseuroclassicalvoice‐leadingnorms: flatseventhsdescend,sharpseventhsrise,voicesmaymoveinpar‐ allelthirdsorsixthsbutnotinparalleloctavesorfifths.Dominan‐ talmodulation(changingkeyonestepclockwiseroundthecircle offifths),V-I cadencesandinversionsoftertialtriadsandseventh chordsareothercommonfeaturesinthesetypesofpopularmusic. Ex.184. Mendelssohn:Oh!FortheWingsofaDove.
Examples184(/)and185(p.272),takenfromtwohighlypopular Victorianparloursongs,startbyestablishingthehomekey(tonic, I)bymeansofanionianshuttle(I\V,bars1‐2E$\B$inex.184; bars1‐4F\Cinex.185).Theythenbothmodulatetothedominant. Mendelssohn(ex.184)doessodirectly,usinganF7insecondin‐ version(F7zsinbar4),whileLove’sSweetSong(ex.185)setsupacir‐ cle‐of‐fifthsprogressionusingtheA7chord(III)inbar5thatof 22. Seepp.319‐327foralternativesofferedbyDebussy,Bartók,Stravinsky,Hin‐ demithandCopland.Forquartalharmonyinjazzandrock,seepp.327‐338. Seealsop.142,ff.forBartókand‘folk’modes.
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courseproceedstoDm (vi)inbar6.ThatDminorchordthenacts aspivot(it’sbothviinFandiiinC)andproducesthesolidii?V?I cadenceinC(bars7‐8). Ex.185. JamesLMolloy:Love’sOldSweetSong(1882)
Notealsothefrequencyofdominantseventhchordscontaining theionianmode’stwoleadingnotesatritoneapartandhowthe majorthirdinthosechordsascendsasleadingnotetothenext chord’stonic,whiletheflatseventhdescendstothenextchord’s majorthird(seethesmallleading‐notearrowsinexx.184‐185). Thesetraits,includingsometimesuseoftertialchordsintheirin‐ versions,formtheharmoniccoreofaglobalidiomofpopularmu‐ sicwhichflourishedduringthelatenineteenthcenturyandthe firsthalfofthetwentiethcentury.Thosetraitscanbefound,invar‐ yingproportions,insuchpopulartunesasAdesteFideles,Lacucara‐ cha,TheBlueDanube,Ledéserteur,Giâiphóngmiènnam,JingleBells, theGermannationalanthem,L’hirondelledufaubourg,theInterna‐ tionale,LibertyBell,LightCavalry,theMarseillaise,Milord,Onward ChristianSoldiers,Rubinstein’sMelodyinF,CielitoLindo,Sousleciel deParis,SantaLucia,TheStar‐SpangledBanner,WaltzingMatilda (chorus),WeShallOvercome,WhenTheSaints,WhereHaveAllthe FlowersGone,WorkersoftheWorldAwaken!23
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Traits like [1] ionian‐mode voice leading via the dominant sev‐ enth’sminorseventhandmajorthird,[2]dominantalmodulation, [3]fallingV-Idirectionality,[4]frequentchordalinversionhavein factbecomesoindicativeofEuropeanartmusicthattheycanbe insertedasgenresynecdoches24inacontextofnon‐classicalhar‐ mony (e.g. pop and rock) to connote HIGH ART rather than LOW‐ BROWENTERTAINMENT,DEEPFEELINGSandtheTRANSCENDENTrather thantheSUPERFICIALandEPHEMERAL(examples186‐188). Ex.186. Subdominantsecondinversionassecondchord:outlinekeyboardar‐ peggiation.(a)JSBach:PreludeinCmajorfromWohltemperiertes Klavier,I(1722);(b)EltonJohn:YourSong(1970,transposedtoC)25
Ex.187. Inversionsthroughdescendingbassinmajorkey:(a)JSBach:Airfrom OrchestralSuiteinDMajor(1731);(b)ProcolHarum:AWhiter ShadeofPale(1967,transposedfromC);(c)Morricone:‘Gabriel’s Oboe’(1986);(d)basslinecommontoall.
23. Sources:BlueDanube(‘Strauss,J.’);Ledéserteur(Vian);Giâiphóng(Huynh);Jin‐ gleBells(Pierpoint);LibertyBell(Sousa);LightCavalry(Suppé);Marseillaise (Rouget);Milord(Piaf);OnwardChristianSoldiers(Sullivan);Sousleciel (Giraud);Star‐Spangled(Smith,J.S.);WeShallOvercome(Baez);WhenTheSaints (Barber,C.);WhereHaveAllTheFlowers(Seeger);Workers(Hill,Joe). 24. Genresynecdoche:apart‐for‐wholemusicalelementimportedfromastylein somewaydistinctfromthatofthepiecedoingtheimporting.Thesimple quoterefersnotonlytoitselfintheothersortofmusicbuttothewholestyle whichitisusedtorepresent.Insodoingagenresynecdochesalsorefersto notionsofthecultureofwhichtheimportedmusicalstyleisbutonepart. 25. Forconnotationsof‘AveMariachords’seeTagg&Clarida(2003:173‐180).
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Ex.188. Alteredsupertonicseventhchordinfourthinversion:(a)Mozart:Ave verumcorpus,K618(1791);(b)ProcolHarum:Homburg(1967b); (c)Abba:Waterloo(1974b)
Togetherwithdancestyleslikebossanova,jazzhasreliedheavily onasenseofharmonicdirectionsimilartothatoftheEuropean classicaltradition.Longandsometimesquitecomplexchordse‐ quences,anincreasingamountofchromaticism,andtheuseof modulationareallkeyfactorsinmanytypesofjazz.Thepopular‐ ityofthethirty‐twobarstandardasbasisforimprovisationbears witnesstotheessentialroleofharmonicnarrativeinjazz.Putsim‐ ply,nostandardjazzperformancewillworkifmusiciansdonot knoworcannotfollowthechordchanges. Fig.44.
PossiblerenditionsinCofVI‐II‐V‐Isequenceinmaintertialidioms ofjazzharmony
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Jazzharmonycanbedividedintofourmainhistoricalidioms:[1] trad.jazz;[2]theswingera;[3]bebop;[4]post‐bop.Withtheexception of[4],alljazzharmonyfollowstheunderlyingprinciplesasEuro‐ peanartmusic:flatseventhstendtofall,sharpseventhsrise,acci‐ dentals(alterations)areusedforchromaticeffectorformodula‐ tion,andthereisprettystrictadherencetofalling,subdominantal (V‐I)progressionsanticlockwiseroundthecircleoffifths.Tradjazz harmonytendstouserealcircle‐of‐fifthsprogressions,adding sixthsorseventhstobasictriads.Swingeraharmonytendstofa‐ vourvirtualcircle‐of‐fifthsprogressionswithsixths,seventhsand ninthsaddedtobasictriads.Bebopharmonycanberegardedasa radicalexpansionofswingharmony:itfeaturesconsiderablechro‐ maticalteration,mostnotablythroughtritonesubstitutionwhich includestheflatfifthasanextraleadingnote,andbyitsuseof chordsoftheeleventhandthirteenth.Basicdifferencesbetween thesejazzharmonyidiomsareillustratedinsimplifiedforminfig‐ ure44whichshowsvaryingtreatmentofthe VI‐II‐V‐I vamp sequence.26
Summaryin6points Themaincharacteristicsofclassicalharmony,asfoundinhymns, nationalanthemsandmanytypesofpopularsong,aswellasin mostformsofjazz,canbesummarisedasfollows. [1]Chordsareconstructedbystackingsuperimposedthirds(ter‐ tialchordstructure). [2]Defaultmodeisionian,theonlymodeinwhichatertialtetrad onanydegreeoftherelevantheptatonicscalecontainstwoleading notesinrelationtothetonictriad(I);intheionianmodethattetrad fallsonscaledegree5(V7)andiscalledadominantseventh. 26. Chordshorthandisexplainedinthenextchapter:romannumeralsat p.224,ff.,leadsheetchordsatp.233,ff.
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[3]Voice‐leading(howindividualnotesinonechordlinktoindi‐ vidualnotesinthefollowingone)isimportant:flatseventhsde‐ scend,sharpseventhsrise,voicesmaymoveinparallelthirdsor sixthsbutneverinparalleloctavesorfifths. [4]Inversionsoftertialtriadsandtetradsarequitecommon,asare conjunctbasslines. [5] Initial outward harmonic movement (harmonic departure) tends to go sharpwards (clockwise) but the majority of chord changes proceed flatwards (anticlockwise) round the key clock, endingwithaV-Icadence([vii?] iii?] vi?] iiorIV?] V?I)(har‐ monicreturn). [6] Only the V-I cadence is considered full, complete or perfect; classicalharmony’sthreeothercadencetypesarecalled[1]‘half’or ‘imperfect’, [2] ‘plagal’ (= ‘oblique’) and [3] ‘interrupted’/‘false’/ ‘deceptive’. Asalreadystated,there’sstillplentyofthistypeofharmonyin whatcitizensoftheWesternworldhearonadailybasis.Butthat everydaymusicalsocontains,asI’vealsosuggested,plentyofhar‐ monythatworksdifferently.Thosedifferencesarethesubjectof thenexttwochapters.
FFBk09Harm2.fm. 14-08-02 01:53
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9.N on‐classicaltertialharmony Non‐classicaltertial:intro Thenexttwochaptersdealwithtwotypesofnon‐classicalhar‐ mony:[1] NON‐CLASSICAL TERTIAL(thischapter)and[2] QUARTAL (Chapter10).Whentryingtounravelhowthesetypesofharmony workitisingeneralcounterproductive,ifnotdownrightmislead‐ ing,tothinkintermsofinterruptedandimperfectcadences,of dominantsandsubdominants,of leadingnotes,ofgrandhar‐ monicnarrative,flatwardsdirectionalityandtheunstoppablecur‐ rentofclassicaltonalitysweepingusalltoourinevitabledatewith afinalV-I‘perfect’cadence.Eventhe‘normal’taskofidentifying keynotesandrootnotescanbeafutileexercisewhendealingwith musicthatseemstohaveeithernoneorseveral.Thelongandshort ofthisparagraphisthatit’spointlesstryingtoforcetheconceptual gridofconventionalharmonylessonswholesaleontomusicthat conventionalharmonyexpertshavebetweenthemspentcountless lifetimesavoidingortrivialising. SomeoftheissuesjustraisedareexaminedmorecloselyinChap‐ ters12,13and14,whileChapter11(‘One‐chordchanges’)con‐ frontsassumptionsaboutharmonicimpoverishmentinnon‐classi‐ calstylesbyarguingthatsinglechordsusuallyconsistofatleast two.However,beforeaddressingthoseissues,it’swisetobe equippedwithsomebasicconceptsthatcanbeofusewhencon‐ frontingalltheeverydaymusicthatdoesnotconformtotherules ofclassicalharmony.
Preliminaries Non‐classicalharmonyisoftencalledmodal,butthatis,asI’vere‐ peatedlyargued,amisnomerbecausewhatmakesclassicalhar‐ monyuniqueisitsparticularuseofaparticularmode—theionian. So,by ‘NON‐CLASSICAL TERTIAL HARMONY’Imeanthewaychords areusedintertialmusicthatfollowsthetonalvocabularyofthe modesdiscussedinChapters3and4—thechurchmodes,Hijaz,
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pentatonic,hexatonic,etc.—butdoesnotingeneralabidebythe rulesofclassicalharmonyintermsofvoiceleading,modulation, cadences,harmonicnarrative,etc.Asalreadyinferred,thischapter dealswiththeoverridinglytertialaspectsofnon‐classicalhar‐ mony.QuartalharmonyisdiscussedinChapter10(p.297,ff.). Locrianharmonyisnotincludedherebecauseitstertialtonictriad isdiminishedratherthan,asinalltheothercases,eithermajoror minor,afactthatmakesitharmonicallyunusableinmusicinclud‐ ingdronesorheldnotesatthefifth,orinmusicwherepowerfifths aretheorderortheday(asinvariousstylesofmetal).1That’swhy thisfirstpartofthechapterfocusesontertialharmonyinthesixre‐ maining‘church’modes:ionian,dorian,phrygian,lydian,mixo‐ lydianandaeolian(seeTable 20,p.280) 2Ofthosesixmodesthe ionianissometimesregardedas‘non‐modal’becauseithasthe sametonalvocabularyastheEuropeanheptatonicmajorscale,the resultbeingthatonlythedorian,phrygian,lydian,mixolydianand aeolianmodesareconsidered‘modal’.Idon’tagreewiththisspe‐ cialstatusgrantedtotheionian.Thefactthatithasbeen,asweal‐ readysaw(p.256,ff.),aparticularlyinteresting,influentialandfa‐ miliartonalvocabulary,bothinEuropeandglobally,doesn’tmean thatitisn’tjustonemodeamongtheothersanymorethanIcankid myself,asanelderlywhiteEuropeanmale,thatthedemographic ‘elderlywhiteEuropeanmales’isn’tjustonedemographicgroup amongalltheothers,nomatterhowinterestingImaywantto thinkIamorhowfamiliarIamtomyself.Butthereareother,less ideologicalandmoreprosaïc,reasonsfortreatingtheionianasjust onemodeamongothers. 1.
2.
GuitaristsmayinsistthatYngwieMalmsteenisimprovisinginElocrianand thatmaywellbetruebutnoriffingpowerchordsinparallelmotionarepossi‐ bleunlessthetonicchord’s israisedto ,inwhichcasetheharmonywill bydefinitionnolongerbelocrian.Thischapterisonharmony,notmelody. Pentatonicandhexatonicmodescontainingaperfectfifth,includingHijaz, arepartofthisaccountbecausethetertialtriadsontheirscaledegreesfollow thesamebasicprinciplesasthoseofthesixchurchmodesjustlisted.
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Ionianmodeandbarré Fig.45.
I-IV-V-IV-IinDionian: (a)classicalchoraleharmony;(b)withbarréchordsonGandA.
Althoughsequencesofcommontriadsintheionianmodeformthe essenceoftonalpolyphonyinmanypostwarpopularmusicstyles, suchharmonicpractice—forexample,inLatinAmericanurban styleslikecúmbiaorson,inurbanAfricanmusicslikehighlifeand kwela,aswellasinmostpop,rockandR&B—cannotbequalified asclassicalfortwoprosaicreasons.Firstly,suchmusicrarelycon‐ formstoEuropeanartmusicconventionsofvoiceleadingbecause mostbarréchordprogressionsinvolveasequenceofparallelfifths andoctaves(fig.45b),forbiddeninclassicalharmony(fig.45a),for examplebetweenthetriadsonIVandVoftheionianLaBamba loop( I-IV-V ,asinfigure45bwithitsparalleloctavesandfifths betweenGandA).Similarly,bottleneckguitartechniquesrelyen‐ tirelyonchordsstrungtogetherinparallelmotion.Secondly,itis clearthatsuchloops,consistingrarelyofmorethanfourdifferent chords,functioninaradicallydifferentwaytoprogressionsinthe idiomofclassicalharmony,notleastbecausetertialloopsofthis typecontainlittleornochromaticism,nordotheynotmodulate, norcontributeinthemselvestotheconstructionofmusicalnarra‐ tive.Althoughsuch CHORD LOOPS(seeChapters13and14)often changefromonesectionofasongtoanother,theirmainfunction istoprovideafittingtonaldimensiontounderlyingpatternsof rhythm,metreandperiodicity.Theirfunctionisnottoprovide long‐termharmonicdirectionbuttogenerateanimmediateorcon‐ tinuoussenseofongoingtonalmovementandtoactastonallyap‐ propriateaccompanimentalmotor.Theyare,sotospeak,thetonal aspectofgroove.
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Majortriadsinnon‐classicaltertialharmony Characteristicdifferencesinnon‐classicaltertialharmonyderiveto alargeextentfromtheuniquetonalrelationshipbetweenthekey‐ noteandthemajortriadsintrinsictoeachmode.Table20(\)shows thateachmodecontainsthreemajortriads(C, F, Gonthewhite notesofthepiano).Italsoshowsthattheminormodes(dorian, phrygian,aeolian)allhaveamajortriadontheflatthirddegree ($III),thatthephrygianisalonewithamajortriadontheflatsu‐ pertonic($II),thatamajortriadontheunalteredsupertonic(II)is uniquetothelydianmode,thatthemixolydianistheonlymajor modewithamajortriadontheflatseventh($VII),thatthedorian istheonlyminormodewithamajortriadonthefourth(IV),etc. Table20.
Majortriadpositionsinunaltered‘church’modes I
$II
II
$III
IV
V
$VI
$VII
ionian dorian phrygian lydian mixolydian aeolian
The basic principles of tertial harmony in any of the ‘church’ modes(includingtheionian)canbesimplygraspedusingonlythe whitenotesofapianokeyboardinstrument.Playingthemajortri‐ adsofF, G andC,aswellastherelevanttonictriad(ifitisnotal‐ readybasedonf, gorc),whileatthesametimeholdingdownthe keynoteoftherelevantmodeinthebass(cforionian,dfordorian, eforphrygianandsoon)willproducefamiliarbutdistinctivepat‐ ternsofharmonyforeachmode.Thisprocedurecanthenbetrans‐ posedtoanyoftheoctave’sblackorwhitenotes. PermanentPicardythird Oneofthemostcommonalterationsinnon‐classicaltertialhar‐ monyistoraisethethirdoftonictriadsinminormodes(dorian, phrygian,aeolian)from to .Suchalterationcanbeunderstood
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intermsofatiercedePicardieusedconsistentlythroughoutapiece ofmusicassubstituteforthetonicminortriad,notjustasaltera‐ tionofthefinalchord.Majortriadsubstitutionwasacommonfea‐ tureofElizabethanmusic(ex.189,191;seealsoFarnaby’sDreame, Dowland’sKingofDenmark’sGalliard,etc.). Ex.189. Farnaby:Lothto Depart(c.1610): aeolianharmonies withmajortonic triad(Iiv$III iv [$VI $VII])3
PermanentPicardythirdsaren’tjustanarcaneanomalyfoundin musicofthelateRenaissance.They’realsoacommonharmonic featureinawiderangeoftonalidioms,mostprobablybecausethe fourthharmonic(5f)ofanotelikethe 3(147Hz)inthelefthand ofexample189ispitchedtwooctavesandamajorthird( ) higher.ThefourthharmonicofFarnaby’s 3isinotherwordsat 5 (740Hz),justoneoctaveabovethe 4(370Hz)inthekeyboard player’srighthand.4Thefirstnaturalharmonicoftheminorthird ( ),ontheotherhand,is,ifit’severaudible,veryweakandmuch higherat19f,threeoctavesandaminorthirdaboveitsfundamen‐ tal.Ofcourse,thatdoesn’tmeanthatminorthirdsaremelodically ‘unharmonious’butitdoeshaveaccompanimentalrepercussions, especiallyifdronesareinevidence,orifthemusicdoesnotneed tofollowequal‐tonetemperament,orifaccompanyinginstru‐ mentsarerichinovertones.Insuchcasesamajortertialtriadcan soundcleaner,brighter,andacousticallymorestable,etc.thanits minorcounterpart.
3. 4.
DispermanentPicardythirdinthisD‐aeolianextract(d e f@ g a b$ c d). Hzfiguresareaccordingtotheequal‐tonetemperamenttable(fig.9)onpage 73).Hencethediscrepancybetween5×147=735Hzandthe740Hzgivenfor f#5.7fisactually14¢‘outoftune’anyhowand5Hzinthatregistermakes verylittledifference(thenearesttone,f@5,is698Hz,40Hzlower).
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Majorthirdsubstitutioninthetonictriadiswidespreadinmuch bluesandinsomeCountrymusicwhereminororbluesthirdsare sungorplayedtotheaccompanimentofmajortriads(ex.190),or whenbarrétechniquesareusedtoprogressbetweenI, $IIIand IV,as in thedorian‐moderiff of Green Onions(ex.264, p.369) or SmokeOnTheWater(DeepPurple,1972).Dorianharmoniesarein other words suited to the accompaniment of minor pentatonic melody( )because,withalterationofthetonic,majortri‐ adsoccuronfouroffivepitches(I $III IV $VII).Withthefifthde‐ greetriadalsoalteredinthesameway,majortriadsexistonallfive stepsintheminorpentatonicmode(I $III IV V $VII)butthehar‐ monicmoderemainsdorianbecauseit’stheonlymodefeaturing themajortriads$IIIandIV(fig.46,p.283). Ex.190. DarlingCorey(Watson1963):majortonictriadforminormodetune
Thefifthdegreetriadofminormodeswasalsooftenalteredtoma‐ jorinEuropeanpolyphonicmusicduringtheascendancyofthe ionianmode(andthebourgeoisie),typicallytointroduceV?Ica‐ dences containing dominant sevenths and their double leading notes.Example191(bars1‐2)showsadorian(I IV $III)and(bars 4‐5) a mixolydian progression (I IV $VII), each followed by the standardV7-Icadenceofclassicalharmony. Asjustnoted,alterationofvtoV(changingthetriadonscalede‐ gree fromminortomajor)alsooccursinblues‐relatedstyles,es‐ pecially when barré, slide or bottleneck techniques are used on guitar.Inthesecasessuchalterationrelatestotuningandplaying practices,nottoanypredilectionfortheionianmodeorforperfect cadences,asisevidentfromtheabsenceofV-Ichanges(B?E)in example 192 whose guitar strings are tuned to an open E major chord (E B E G# B E). Note how major triads follow the melodic contourinparallelmotionattheoctaveorfifth.
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Ex.191. Weelkes:Hark,AllYeLovelySaints(c.1610)
Ex.192. Slideguitarchords(openingtuningE)forVigilanteMan(Guthrie), adaptedfromCooder(1971)
Thelogicofthisharmonic practiceissimple.Figure46 showshowplacingatertial majortriadoneachdegree ofananhemitonicla‐penta‐ tonicbluesscale5produces thechordsI $III IV V $VII —D F G A CinD(fig.46),E G A B DinE(ex.192),etc.Theseobser‐ vationsarepertinentnotonlytoblueswithopen‐chordtuningor bottleneckaccompanimentonguitarbutalsotothepowerchords ofblues‐influencedrockintheheavymetalrepertoire. Fig.46.
5.
La‐pentatonicmajortriads
Thela‐pentatonicbluesmodeisdiscussedonpages165‐167.
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Powerchordexcursion Powerchordsaredyadsplayedonanelectricguitartreatedwith distortion.Thedyad’stwonotesareplayedaperfectfifthorfourth apartonadjacentstrings,asshowninfigure47.6 Fig.47.
Typical‘shapes’forplayinganE5powerchord(Lilja,2009:104)
Powerchordshorthandconsistsoftherootnotenameandasuper‐ scripted‘5’toindicatethatthefifthbutnothirdisalsoplayed.All fourchordsinfigure47areE5(‘Efive’)becauseonlytwodiffer‐ entlynamednotesaresounded—eanditsfifth,b.Similarly,theA5 infigure48(p.285)designatesapower‐chordconsistingofaÈ(110 Hz,openAstring)anditsfifth,eÌ(165Hz,Dstring,2ndfret).Al‐ thoughpowerchordsareplayedasdyads,theyproducealarge numberofaudibleharmonicsthatmakethemsoundrichlytex‐ tured.Oneofthoseharmonicsisthemajorthird( ),heardatfive timesthefrequencyoftherootnote,aswiththec#indicatedas‘5f’ at550Hzintherootharmonicslistedinfigure48abovetheA5 powerchord.‘Ihearthethirdindistortion’,saidPeteTownshend.7 Ialsofoundthe‘major‐thirdaspect’ofpowerchordsquitestrik‐ ing,notleastwhenteachingkeyboardharmonyinthe1970s,long beforetheadventofpolyphonicsynthsandmulti‐tracksampling. Ihadtosuggestwaysofaccompanyingrocktracksonthe(acous‐ tic)piano.Myattemptstoapproximatethesoundofpowerchords ontheinstrumentweredoomedtofailbutitallsoundedslightly lessabsurdifweakmajorthirds( ,thesmallnotesinex.193) wereaddedtothetopofthemainriffnotes( ). 6. 7.
Dyad:chordconsistingoftwodifferentlynamedtones(seedefinitions,p.223). PeteTownshend,songwriter,guitaristandleadfigureinTheWho,quotedby Lilja(2009:131).Themajorthirdisfifthintheharmonicseries(5f),two+ (minus14cents)abovethefundamental(fig.7,p.66).5fiseasytohearinfeed‐ back,forexampleat3:42inZ.Z.Top’sGimmeAllYourLovin’(1983).
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Ex.193. RollingStones(1971):Bitch(start,approximationforacousticpiano).
OnelessonIlearntfromthisstrangeexercisewasthatthepresence ofamajorthirdintheupperregisterisatthesametimeatimbral andtonalissue.Thepowerchord’s isobviouslytimbralbecause 5fisapartial;butit’sjustasclearlytonalbecauseit’sanaudible partofasoundconsistingofpartialsthatunequivocallyconfirma verystrongandstableroottone,asshowninfigure48.8 Fig.48.
PowerchordharmonicsforA5(a2110Hz,e3165Hz)
PlayingA5asapowerchorddoesnotonlyproducetheroothar‐ monicsshownontheleftinfigure48becauseaÈandeÌtogether alsogenerateaDISTORTIONFUNDAMENTALat55Hz(a1),oneoctavebe‐ lowtheaÈroot.Thata1isarealdifferencetone,ameasurableacoustic phenomenonratherthanacombinationtonecreatedinsidethelis‐ tener’shead.Interactingwiththetwonotesofthepowerchordand itsrootharmonics,theDISTORTIONFUNDAMENTALproducesitsown harmonic series which, apart from a ‘natural’ $ê (7f=\gÒ) and ô (9f=\bÒ),twomajorthirds(5f=c#Ò,10f=c#Ù)andtwofifths(3f=eÌ, 6f=eÒ),alsoincludesthreeoctaves(2f,4f,8f,=aÈ aÌ aÒ).Lilja(2009: 113)summarisesthesefindingsasfollows.9 8.
Figure48isadrasticsimplificationofLilja(2009:104‐114,esp.p.113),inits turnbasedonresearchconductedatHelsinkiUniversityofTechnology’s DepartmentofSignalProcessingandAcoustics(seePenttinenetal.,2009).
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‘[T]hedistortionfundamentalmayberegardedasachordroot, ratherthanthechordrootthatisactuallyplayed.Furthermore,all thehigherpartialsbelongtothesameharmonicseries,whichis notthecasewith,forexample,theminortriad.Thisiswhythe powerchordis…regardedasthemostconsonantchordstructure.’
Thepowerchordisinotherwordsmadetonallystableandconso‐ nantbytheharmonicseriesconsistingofthepartialsdefiningit.10 Thisacousticrootednessmakesthepowerchordausefultoolin heavymetal,industrialandgrungemusicbecauseitallowsforthe unequivocalstatementofsubstantial‘tonalelsewheres’inrelation tothetonic(I5).The$II5ofthephrygianexamplescitedearlier (pp.128‐130)illustratethisphenomenonclearly,asdothetritone ofexample194andthelocrianshuttleI5\$V5inSymptomOfThe Universe(BlackSabbath,1975).11Afterall,youcan’tgetmuchfur‐ therawayfromthetonic(I5)onthekeyclockthanto$II,fivesteps flatward,andthereisnomoredistantpositiononthecircleoffifths than$V/#IV,afullsixstepsaway. Ex.194. BlackSabbath:BlackSabbath(1969):tritoneriff)
Ofcourse,asillustratedinexample195,youdon’thavetomoveso farroundthekeyclockfromI5toexperiencetheimpactoftonal solidityofferredbyeachpowerchord.Forexample,thechorusof Nirvana’sLithium(ex.195)takesfourkey‐clockstepssharpward fromI(D5)toIII (F#5)andflatwardto$VI (B$5);thenVI(B5)is 9.
Lilja(2009:114)alsoaddsanimportantPeteTownshendquotetohissum‐ mary.‘Noneoftheshapes[chords]Iplaywithlouddistortionhavea3rd, becauseyouhearthe3rdinthethedistortion’…‘[I]fyouplayedthe3rd,you’re goingtogetanotewhichis4th[5f]upfromthat.ThatsoundIcan’tstandis peopleplayingacompleteCchordwithfuzz.They’reactuallyendingupwith somethinglikeaC13’(citedinResnicoff,1989:80). 10. Theharmonicfrequenciesareintegralmultiplesofthedistortionfundamental (fig.48,p.285).Seefig.7(p.66)forexplanationsoftheharmonicseries. 11. For$II5,seeexamples43‐47,pp.128‐130(Ermálak,IronMaiden,Rainbow, Metallica).SymptomOfTheUniverseisquotedbyLilja(2009:171).
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threestepsaway,$VII (C5)istwo,whileIV (G5)andV (A5)are bothjustonestepfromI.ThechorustoSmellsLikeTeenSpirit(ex. 196),withF5asI,issimilar,movingthreeandfourkey‐clocksteps fromI (F5)to$III (A$5)and$VI (D$5)respectively. Ex.195. Nirvana:Lithium(1991:chorus,00:37‐00:54)
Ex.196. Nirvana:SmellsLikeTeenSpirit(1991:chorus)
ThesetwoNirvanasongsusepowerchordschromaticallytopro‐ duceanimportantbutoftenoverlookedingredientintheexpres‐ sion of the visceral alienation frequently ascribed to the band’s music.12 In most blues‐based rock, however, power chord se‐ quencesrarelystrayfurtherfromthetonicthan$VI5.Infactthey tendmainlytobebasedonthenotesofthela‐pentatonic(blues) mode,i.e.I5, $III5, IV5, V5and$VII5(seefig.49,p.288)plusthe additionalaeolian$VI5.Typicalofthistonalidiomwouldbesuch 12. Googling|nirvana express alienation anger|generated>7millionhits [140724];e.g. ‘Nirvanausedextremechangesof…volumetoexpressangerandalienation: aquiet,tunefulverseswitchedintoaferocious,distortedchorus’(JonSavage inEncyclopediaBritannica britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/415919/Nirvana[140724]). ThedynamicbetweenthesharpwardsandflatwardschangesinLithium(F#5B5then[G5-] B$5 C5)isparticularlystriking;soistheinternald$-cinexample 196’sD$5-F5thatmovesinparallelfifthswiththeanguished (a$-g)motif inthevocals.For andanguish,seepp.110‐116.
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chordsequencesastheA A C C D F A A|(I $III IV $VI I)ofAlice Cooper’sUnderMyWheels(1971),ortheA×8C×4D D E E(I $III IV V)andA G D D(I $VII IV)ofAC/DC’sShootToThrill(1980).13We areinotherwordsbackatthepoint,illustratedinfigure46(p.283) andwhichledtothispower‐chordexcursion,aboutPicardythirds inminor‐modetertialharmony,exceptthatitshouldnowbeclear how (at5fand10f)haslittleornothingtodowith‘themajor key’orwiththemajorthirdsofeuroclassicalharmony.The acts ratherasanacousticstabilisingfactorinthestatementofindivid‐ ualchordsthatdependneitheronsuspension‐resolution,noronV‐ Iharmonicmovement,noronleading‐notedirectionalitytoestab‐ lishthemasvalidpointsofharmonicdifference.Forexample,the at5fintheA5chordoffigure49neither‘comesfrom’nor‘leads’ anywhere in particular. Its function is simply to make the chord richerandmorerooted. Fig.49.
Blues‐pentatonicpowerchords( )inA,includingdistortionfunda‐ mental(●1f)andpartials2f,3f,4fand5f(▪,third,#Î)[end mark!]
Backto‘acoustic’tertiality Theobservationsmadeearlierabout‘majorising’tertialtriadson scale degrees and and the short exposé of power chords in blues‐based rock demand that Table 20 (p. 280) be updated as showninTable21(p.289).Returningtotheworldofacousticterti‐ ality,thedatainTable21canbesummarisedineightpoints. 13. I $III IV $VI IisheardthroughouttheAliceCoopertrack.I $III IVandV areheardduringtheverseandI $VII IVduringthechorusofAC/DC’sShoot ToThrill.Seealsothela‐pentatonicI $III IV…ofSmokeOnTheWater(Deep Purple,ex.94,p.167)orofany‘rock‐dorian’looplistedinTable37(p.446). Seealsoexamples81(p.160);190and192‐193(pp.282‐285).Seepp.165‐167 fordiscussionandillustrationofthebluesla‐pentatonicmode.
Tagg:EverydayTonalityII—9.Non‐classicaltertialharmony Table21.
289
Tertialtriadtypesforscaledegreesinthesixchurchmodes
scale degree ? ý mode ý ionian
I
ii
iii
IV
V
dorian
ior
ii
$III
IV
vor
iorI
$II
$III
iv
lydian
I
#II
iii
mixolydian
I
ii
iii°
ii°
$III
iv
phrygian
aeolian
ior
I
I
vi
vii°
vi°
$VII
v°or V
$VI
$vii
+vii°
V
vi
vii
IV
v
vi
$VII
$VI
$VII
vor
V
V
[1]Minormodes(thosecontaining ,i.e.dorian,phrygian,aeo‐ lian)canhaveatertialmajortriadonthetonic(Icanreplacei).Do‐ rianandaeoliantertialharmonymodescanalsohaveamajortriad on (Vcanreplacev;seep.290forunalteredtriads). [2] Each mode contains one diminished tertial triad. These are greyedoutinthetablebecausetheyareusedsorarely.14 [3] Ionian tertial harmony is alone in featuring major triads on scaledegrees and —bothIVandV.Typicalionianchordse‐ quencesareI-IV-V; IV-V-I; ii-V-IandV-IV-I. [4]Doriantertialharmonyisaloneincontainingmajortriadson and —both$IIIandIV.TypicaldorianchordsequencesareI/i$III-IVandIV-$III-I/i. [5]Phrygiantertialharmonyisalonewithmajortriadsonboth and ,aswellaswithaminortriadon ($II, $IIIand$vii).Typ‐ ical phrygian chord sequences are [iv-] $III-$II-I (Hijaz), $III$II-i (‘true’phrygian); $vii-$II-I/iand$II-$vii-I/i.15 [6]Onlylydiantertialharmonyhasmajortriadson and (II, V). AtypicallydianchordlooprunsI-II-V. [7]Mixolydiantertialharmonyisalonewithmajortriadsonscale degrees and (IV and $VII). Typical mixolydian chord se‐ 14. Thesediminishedtriadsarealmostneverheardunlesstheyarepartofahalf‐ diminishedtetrad,e.g.aeolianii7L5,ionianvii7L5. 15. See‘Hijazandphrygian’,pp.124‐142.
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quencesareI-$VII-IV; $VII-IV-Iand$I-$VII-V(the‘cowboyhalf‐ cadence’,seep.294,ff.). [8]Aeoliantertialharmonyisalonewithitsmajortriadson and (both$VIand$VII).Commonaeolianchordsequencesare:[1] $VI-$VII-I/i(theaeoliancadence);[2]i\$VI(theaeolianshuttle);[3] i-$VII-$VI-V(aeolianhalfcadence,oftenconfusedwiththephryg‐ ianfullcadenceiv-$III-$II-I/i);[4]{i-iv-V}(theminorLaBamba orCheGuevaraloop).16 Inshort,thedistinctionbetweenmajorandminortonictriadsisof‐ tenirrelevanttotheidentificationofharmonyintermsofthe churchmodes(includingtheionian).That’sbecausethelocationof majortriadsonotherscaledegreesthan (I)isuniquetoeach mode.OnlytheionianfeaturesbothIVandV,onlythedorianin‐ cludesboth$IIIand$IV,onlythemixolydiancontainsbothIV and$VII,onlytheaeolianhasboth$VIand$VII,etc. Unalterednon‐ioniantertialharmony One type of minor‐mode tertial harmony consistently majorises thetonictriad(I)and/orthetriadon (V);theotherdoesnot.For example,bothtypesoftertialdorianharmonyfeaturemajortriads on$III andIV:[1]theblues‐basedtypediscussedaboveand[2] the‘folk’typewhosetriadson and aremuchmorerarelysub‐ jectedto‘majorisation’.Thesecondtypeisillustratedinexample 197.ItschordsareDm (i), F ($III), G (IV)andC ($VII). Ex.197. PoorMurderedWoman(Eng.trad.,arr.Hutchings;AlbionCountry Band,1971):doriantunewithdoriantertialtriads
16. Icall i-iv-V the‘CheGuevaraloop’becauseofitsconstantpresenceinthe CarlosPueblasongaboutChe—Hastasiempre(1965;ex.290,p.442).
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Table22showsthemajortriads,including,whereapplicable,the alteredtonic(insquarebrackets),ofthechurchmodes.Italso presentseachmode’smajortriadsastheywouldoccurinCandin E,alongwithreferencestoexamplesofpopularmusicinwhich eachrelevantmode‐basedtertialharmonycanbeheard. Table22.
withE astonic
onwhite notes
relative positions
mode
Examplesofmajortriadsinnon‐classicaltertialharmony17 examples
ionian I IV V C F G
EAB
•Labamba(Valens,1958)[C-F-G inC]; •TwistandShout[D-G-AinD] •Guantanamera[F-B$-CinF] (Sandpipers,1966); •PataPata[F-B$-F-C](Makeba,1967).
dorian [I] $III [D] F
[E] G AD
•GreenOnions(BookerT,1962)[F-A$-B$] •TheGirlSangTheBlues (EverlyBrothers,1963)[E-G-A] •SmokeontheWater(DeepPurple,1972) [E-G-AinE];ex.191‐192;
(type1) IV $VII G C
dorian
i $III
Dm F
(type2) IV $VII G C
lydian
I II V
phryg‐ ian
[I] $II [E] F C [E] F CG $III G $VII
mixo‐ lydian
I IV $VII
FGC
Em G A •Greensleeves(Eng.trad;firstline); D •PoorMurderedWoman(ex.184); •ScarboroughFair(Simon&Garfunkel, 1968)[Em-D-Em-G-A-Em](ex.4,p.104)
GCF
E F# B
EAD
aeolian [I] $III [A] C F [E] G G CD $VI $VII
•Eden(Hooverphonic)[C-D-Em-G] •TerminalFrost(PinkFloyd)[D-Ezlu] •CheGuevara(Puebla,1965)[ex.199]; •Malagueña(Sabicas)[Am-G-F-E][ex.198] •Τρεις η ωρα νυχτα(Alexiou,1976)[ex.200] •SweetHomeAlabama(ex.285,p.434); •HeyJude[G-F-C-G]; •TheMagnificentSeven(ex.204b,p.295) Seealsopp.425‐436. •AllAlongtheWatchtower[Am-G-F-G] •Flashdance[G-F-E$-FinG]. •CadencesinLadyMadonna[F-G-A]; PSILoveYou[B$-C-D];SOS[D$-E$-F] BrownSugar[A$-B$-C](ex.183,p.269).
17. ChordshorthandisexplainedinChapter7:romannumeralsatp.224,ff.,lead sheetchordsatp.233,ff.
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Thetertialharmonyofeachmodeisoftenrelatedtothefrequency withwhichitisassumedbymembersofonemusicculturetobe usedintypesofmusicmadebyothers.Hence,dorianharmonyis oftenassociatedwithcertainblues‐basedstyles(ex.192)andwith ruralpopularmusicfromvariousregions(ex.197),whilephrygian chordchangesareoftenregarded,atleastbynon‐Hispanics,as distinctiveofHispanicpopularmusicstyles(ex.198,199).18Aswe sawinChapter3,tertialphrygianharmonyisalsousedexten‐ sivelyinpopularmusicfromGreece(ex.200),Turkey,theBalkans andtheArabworld.18 Phrygiantertialharmony It’seasyforuntrainedearstoconfusetheintrinsicallyphrygianca‐ dence$IIor$vii?Iwiththeaeolian‐harmonicminorhalfcadence $VIoriv?Vtotheextentthatevendedicatedstudentsofflamenco canapparentlyfeelobligedtofinishamalagueñaostinatosimilar tothatsuggestedinexample198onachordofAminorinsteadof Emajor.Tosettherecordstraight,Sabicasusesaphrygiantonicto endhismalagueñaperformances,asdoesCarlosPueblatoendhis odetoCheGuevara(ex.199),andasdoHarisAlexiou’smusicians withthephrygiansongsonher1976album(ex.200).Inconcrete terms, Am G F E inHitTheRoadJack(Charles,1961)isinAaeo‐ lian({i-$VII-$VI-V})butthemalagueña{Am G F E}isinE phrygian({iv-$III-$II-I}).19 Ex.198. Phrygianharmony:popularmalagueñafigure
Ex.199. Phrygianharmony:CarlosPuebla:Hastasiempre.20
18. Seealsoexamples38‐54,pp.126‐135. 19. Theidentificationofkeynotesinchordloopsisdiscussedonp.430,ff.
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Ex.200. Phrygianharmony:Kouyioumtzis:Τρείςηώρανύχτα(Alexiou,1976)
PhrygianharmonyisdiscussedinmoredetailinChapters3(pp. 132‐137)and14(pp.440‐446). Lydiantertialharmony Justasphrygiantertialharmonyhastofeature$IIor$viitobe worthyofthename,lydiantertialharmony,toqualifyaslydian, hastoinclude,apartfromamajorchordonthetonic,atleasteither amajortriadonthemajorsupertonic(II)oraminortriadonthe majorseventh(vii).Thereisnocompletetriadonthesharpfourth intrinsictothelydianmode,justasthereisnoneonthefifthinthe phrygian,noneontheseventhintheionian,etc.Example201,a folkrockrecordinginlydianE,containsplentyof s( )inboth melodyandharmony—E-F#-BisI-II-V. Ex.201. FolkochRackare(1979):Vilborgpåkveste(Norwaytrad.)21
20. TherestofthePueblasong’sharmonyisdiscussedingreaterdetailonpp.440‐ 444inthecontextofbimodality.ItisrecordedinF m. 21. ThefiddlerisTrondVilla.
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LydianmelodiesalsooccurintheBalkansandnumerous‘sharp fours’canforexamplebefoundinBartók’sarrangementsofRoma‐ nianmelodiesforthepiano(pp.138‐149).However,lydianmelody isinfinitelyrarerinEnglish‐languagepopularmusicsandlydian harmonyisalmosttotallyabsent.True,theremaybeafairnumber ofdeparturesfromItoIIbuttheseoftenproceedtoIV,adefinite no‐noforlydianharmony.22Infact,apartfromtheScandinavian folkrockrecordingjustcited,Ionlydiscoveredtwotracks,oneal‐ ternativeelectronicaandtheotherprogrock,containingunequiv‐ ocallydianharmonies:BelgianbandHooverphonic’sEden(1999) withitsC D Em G(I II iii V)andPinkFloydversiontwo’sTerminal Frost(1987)withitsD\Ezèshuttle.EventheC\Dintheversesof R.E.M.’sManOnTheMoon(1992)leadsintoachorussoresound‐ inglyinGthatafterhearingitjustoncetheshuttlesoundsmuch morelikeaIV\VinGthanaI\IIinC.23 Mixolydian Ex.202. TheLamentationofHughReynolds(Irishtrad:start):tertialharmo‐ nisationofmixolydiantunerequiresI, IVand$VII(D, GandC)
MixolydianharmonyisprobablyascommoninEnglish‐language popularmusicaslydianisrare.Themixolydianistheonlymode withmajortriadsonI, $VIIandIV.ItisoftenlinkedwithBritish andIrishorAnglo‐Americanfolkmusic(ex.202‐203),withsome formsofrockandCountry,withruralpopularsongfromBrazil’s 22. e.g.EightDaysAWeek(Beatles,1964c);Homburg(ProcolHarum,1967b). 23. Ispentawholedaysearchingonlineforlydianharmonyinpopandrock.The HooverphonicandPinkFloydexampleswerementionedintheWikipedia entryLydianmodeamongahostofothersinwhichIcoulddiscernafewlydian traitsinmelodiclinesbutnoreallydianharmonies.
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northeasternstates,aswellasinmusicforWesternadventures(ex. 204).Oneparticulartraitofmixolydianharmony,the‘cowboyhalf cadence’,from$VIItoanalteredmajortriadonV,isfamiliar enoughtohavebecomeanobjectofbothpastiche(ex.206)and parody(ex.207).Wereturninmoredetailtomixolydianharmony inChapter14. Ex.203. RoundingTheHorn(Eng.trad:end):tertialharmonisationofmixoly‐ diantunerequiresI, IVand$VII (D, GandC)
Ex.204. Mixolydianshuttles:(a)Tiomkin:DuelintheSun(1947)
Ex.205. ;(b)Mancini:Cade’sCounty(1971)
Ex.206. Cowboyhalfcadences:(a)TheShadows:Dakota(1963)
Ex.207. Cowboyhalfcadences:(b)Brooks/Morris:BlazingSaddles(1974)
Aeoliantertialharmony Aeolian harmony seems to have acquired two main functions in popandrockmusic:[1]connotingtheominous,fatefulorimplac‐ able (Björnberg 1995); [2] substituting standard IV?I or V?I ca‐ dences with the more colourful $VI?$VII?I aeolian cadence,
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easily performed as barré chords on guitar. We’ll revisit aeolian harmonyingreaterdetailonpages389‐392inChapter12.
Summaryin5points [1]Non‐classicaltertialharmonyusesthesamebasictriadsasclas‐ sicalharmonybutappliesthemaccordingtodifferentrulesandin differentfunctions. [2]Apartfromacommontriadonthetonic,themostimportant andcharacteristicchordsforeachmodeare,ifplayedononlythe white notes of a piano keyboard, the major triads on F and C. These major chords are positioned differently in each mode: IV andVfortheionian,$IIIandIVforthedorian,$IIIand$IIfor thephrygian,IIandVforthelydian,IVand$VIIforthemixoly‐ dian,$VIand$VIIfortheaeolian. [3]Thethree‘major’modesareionian,lydianandmixolydian.The others—dorian,phrygianandaeolian—are‘minor’modes. [4]Harmonyinthe‘minor’modesoften(notalways)featuresan alteredtonictriadwithapermanentPicardythird—Iconsistently replaces i. Triads on the fifth are also frequently ‘majorised’ —v maybereplacedbyV. [5]Non‐classicaltertialharmonyisinvestigatedingreaterdetailin Chapter14—‘Chordloops&bimodality’.Quartalharmonyisthe subjectofthenextchapter.
FFBk10Quartal.fm. 2014-08-02, 01:53
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10.Quartalharmony Theory No‘sus’,no‘add’,no‘omit’ Fig.50.
Sixcommonquartalchordscontainingcandf
Ifyou’refamiliarwithlead‐sheetchordshorthand(pp.224‐237) andformedintheii-V-Imouldoftheionian‐tertialtradition,you mightbeinclinedtolabelthesixchordsinfigure50inthefollow‐ ingsortofterms:[1]‘CS4overg’or‘G7S’;[2]‘F*9T3’;[3] ‘FS9’;[4]‘FS4’;[5]‘FS4 S9’;[6]‘C11’.Chord6iscertainlyan elevenchord,buttheotherlabels—the‘sus‐s’,‘adds’and‘omits’— aren’tjustclumsy:they’realsowronginaquartalharmonycontext. That’sbecauseifthere’snothingsuspended,addedoromittedabouta chord,it’sperversetodesignateitasiftherewere.Aswiththeother misnomersdiscussedearlier,1it’salsomisleadingtolabelfeatures ofquartalharmonyintermsirrelevanttotheidiom.Asecondary aimofthischapteristhereforetosuggestaneaterandlesserratic wayofdenotingthemostcommonquartalchords.Theprimary aim,however,istoputforwardabasicrationalefortheworkings ofquartalharmony.Thatinvolvesinvestigatingaspectsoftonality whichseldomseethelightofdayinconventionalharmony courses,problematisingnotionslike‘root’and‘inversion’,andex‐ ploringtheborderregionsbetweentertialandquartaltonality. Thatdiscussionisimportantbecause,aswillbecomeclearfrom themusicdiscussedlater,quartalharmonyoccursinawiderange ofrepertoires,fromvernacularchoralityinruralRussiatopost‐be‐ bopjazz,fromAppalachianbanjotuningstoimpressionism,from BartóktoTVnewsthemes,andfromfolkrocktocorporatejingles andaudiosignalsondigitaldevices. 1.
Twoexamples:[1]undominantalphrygianandlydian‘dominants’(pp.133, 136‐137,143‐149);[2]theuninterrupted‘interrupted’cadence(pp.264‐265).
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Basicconcepts Chordshorthand To save space in what follows I need first to set out a few basic termsandsymbolsassixchordsexplainedinsixpoints. Fig.51.
Sixbasicquartaldyadsandtriadswithabbreviations
[1]Chords1and2infigure51areopen‐fifthdyads.Followingthe abbreviation conventions of heavy metal, C5 (‘C five’) and F5 (‘F five’)replacecumbersomeandunnecessaryperiphraseslike‘Cno 3’and‘FomitA’forsuchcommonsounds. [2]Chords5and6arealsocommonquartalsounds.C4(‘Cfour’) replaces‘Csus4’;F2(‘Ftwo’)replaces‘Fsus9’and‘Fadd9’.‘4’and ‘2’usedinthiswayassumethesimultaneouspresenceofafifth. [3]Chords3‐6arealltriadsandallinversionsofthenotesg, cand f.Theycanbedesignatedindifferentwaysdependingoncontext (see‘Quartaltriadsandthekey‐clockneighbourhood’,p.299,ff.). [4]Chord3isathree‐notequartalstack(Á) risingfromg (GÁ,‘aG fourstack’,g-c-f),chord4athree‐notequintalstack(À)risingfrom f (FÀ,‘anFfivestack’,f-c-g). [5]ThesymbolsÃandÄ(chords3and4)designatestacksemanat‐ ingfromagivencentralnote,e.g.‘CÃ’forthetriadg-c-forforthe pentadd-g-c-f-b$(see§6). [6]Ifnecessary,thenumberofnotesinaquartalorquintalstack canbesignalledbyasuperscriptednumeralfollowingthechord abbreviation,forexample‘CÃ5’forthepentadd-g-c-f-b$(designa‐ tiontoneincentralposition).Thesameprincipleappliesto‘rising’ stacksymbols,forexample‘Dÿ’forthequartalpentadd-g-c-f-b$, ‘B$ÀÚ’forthequintallyvoicedstackrisingfromb$—b$-f-c-g-d.If thenumberofnotesinsuchchordsisself‐evident,ofifthechordis atriad(e.g.GÃ = d-g-c),theadditionalnumeralneednotbegiven.
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Quartalandquintal Fig.52. Quartal harmony is so called because it’s based Quartal/quintal notonstackedthirds(tertial)butonthestackingof stacking fourths,oroftheiroctavecomplement,fifths(fig. 52).‘QUARTAL’,not‘quintal’,isusedasgenericla‐ belforsuchharmonyforthesamereasonthat‘ter‐ tial harmony’ (stacked thirds) is preferable to ‘sextal harmony’ (sixths, the octave complement ofthirds). Iffallingthrough a pileofstacked sixthspassesnotes with the same names in the same order as climbing a stack of thirds—e.g.cs>er>gq>bpandcrfp>b$o and dr > > ),asinthefinal$II?IbetweenDandC#in example70.30Givensuchconspicuoussemitonaldirectionalityit’s hardtounderstandwhymanymusiciansfeelcompelledtotackan extraivchordtotheendofafinalphrygiancadence,asifthatad‐ ditioncouldsomehowmoreconclusivelyfinalisewhathadal‐ readybeenbroughttoanfinalconclusiononphrygianI/ .31 However,asalreadynotedinthediscussionofpotentialkeynote identifiers(p.431,ff.),thefinalisisnotnecessarilythetonicofwhat precedesit.Infactthepotentialvalueofhypomodesforpopular musicstudiesseemstolieinthefactthattheylinkmodes,whose tonalcentresareafourthorfifthapart,togetherinpairs:theionian withthemixolydian,themixolydianwiththedorianand,aswe’ve justseen,theaeolianwiththephrygian(Table36,p.445).Another wayofunderstandingthesebimodalpairingsistoidentifythetwo harmonicpolesinvolvedandtoreversethesequencebetween them.Forinstance,turningtheC#phrygiansequenceF#m E D C# inexample70into[C#]D E F#mcreatesanimmediatelyrecognisa‐ ble$VI-$VII-iaeoliancadence,whilereversingtheexample’sF# aeoliani-iv-Vinto|hC# qBmqF#m|producestheunequivocally phrygianeffectI-$vii-iv.Similarly,reversingLaBamba’s{I-IVV}inionianGfromG-C-DtoD-C-Gleads,withappropriatemetric 30. Leadingnote:seeesp.pp.256‐258;alsoftnt.15(p.59)andpp.76‐77,95‐96. 31. It’sthisinabilitytohearafinalphrygian/Hijazcadencethatgivesrisetothe falsenotionofthe‘phrygiandominant’(seepp.133,136‐137).Iwasabitsur‐ prisedthatTheGipsyKings,onMosaïque(1989),endedthetracksCaminoand TristaPenaonanaeoliantonic.Still,onetrackonthealbum,Vientodelaarena, seemedsoAndalusianthatitjusthadtohavea$II?Iending.Itdid:Gm?F? E$?DinDphrygian.Seealso‘Phrygiantertialharmony’,pp.292‐293.
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andanacrustictreatment,tothe{I-$VII-IV}ofSweetHomeAla‐ bamainmixolydianD. Nevertheless,asshowninthebottomrowofTable36,modesdon’t havetobe‘hypo‐linked’inpairsatthefifthorfourth.Euroclassical musictheory’spairingofrelativemajorandminorkeys(p.259,ff.) suggeststhattheionianandaeolianalsomakeagreatmodalcou‐ ple.Forexample,switchingbetweenionianandaeolian(where I?viionianequals$III?iaeolian)wasmentionedinconnection withtheFlûteindienneexampleonpage441,whose$VI-$III-V-i in E (C-G-B7-Em)consistsofanionianIV-I (C G)followedbyanaeo‐ lianV-i (B7-Em).32Althoughthatsequencecanbeonlypartiallyre‐ versed (Em-B7-C-G, Em-B7-C-D-G,etc.),it’sclearthatthestraightre‐ versalofaeolianprogressionslikethe[un]interruptedcadence formulaeG-D-EmandG-C-D-Em (I-[IV]-V-vior$III-$VI-$VII-i) willturnthembothintoioniancadences,one‘perfect’(vi-V-I/ Em-D-G),theotherplagal(vi-V-IV-I / Em-D-C-G). Table36.
Bimodalreversibilityofprogressions(examplesonly)
lydianFGC=IIIV[I]
↔
ionianCGFF=IVIV[I]
ionianCFG=IIVV[I]
↔
mixolydianGFC=I$VIIIV[I]
mixolydianGCFDm =IIV$VIIv[I]
↔
dorianDmFCG =i$III$VIIIV[I]
dorianDmFGAm=i$IIIIVv[I]
↔ aeolianAmGFDm=i$VII$VIv[I]
aeolianAmDmE=iivV[I]* aeolianEFGAm=V$VI$VIIi*
↔
phrygianEDmAm=I$viiiv[I]* phrygianAmGFE=iv$III$III*
ionianAmGC=viVI
↔
aeolianCGAm=$III$VIIi
*PhrygianiisnormallyalteredtoHijazI,soaeolianvisalteredheretoV.
ItshouldinshortbeunderstoodthattheV-Icadencedoesnot trumpallothersinnon‐classicaltonalityandthatreversal,partial ortotal,ofharmonicdirection,asintheCarlosPueblaexample, canestablishtwomodes,eachwithitsowntonic,insidethesame 32. Seefootnote19,p.440.
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shortpieceofmusic.Withthatsimpleawarenessofbimodality,of harmonicreversibility,andofnon‐classicaltertialharmony’srela‐ tiveindependencefromtheunidirectionalandtonallymonocen‐ trictyrannyofV-I‘perfect’cadences,it’smucheasiertounder‐ stand,acceptandenjoytuneslikeMilaMoja(ex.272,p.385).No longerdoweneedtohearitendingwithan‘imperfectcadence’on anirrelevant‘dominant’whichwefrustratinglyandmeaning‐ lesslyexpecttobe‘resolved’ontothetonic,inthepresumptuous beliefthatatunesoshortandsimplecannotpossiblyhavetwo tonalpolesofequalvalue.Putinmorecolourfulterms,ifweWest‐ ernersnolongeraccuseBuddhistsofdisrespectbecausetheywear whiteinsteadofblackatfunerals,surelywecanalsolearntohear, understand,respectandenjoymusicthatdoesn’tfollowthesame culturallyspecificrulesasthosewe’vebeenbroughtuptofollow.
Mediantalloops Table37. Type
(a) I-$III-IV-
rock‐ dorian loop
(b) I-III?
Mediantalchordloops(selection) Tune(Artist,Year:chords[detail]) •AC/DC:ShootToThrill(1980:A C D …) •AliceCooper:UnderMyWheels(1971:A C D…) •BookerTandtheMGs:GreenOnions(1962:F A$ B$) •J.J.Cale:AfterMidnight(1971:E G A E) •CannedHeat:OnTheRoadAgain(1968:E×6G A) •EverlyBrothers:TheGirlSangTheBlues(1963:E G A E/A C D A) •LedZeppelin:Bron‐yr‐AurStomp(1970:G B$ C) •LedZeppelin:CandyStoreRock(1976:E A Gshortriff) •Mission:Sacrilege(1986: ×6F G) •Slade:ShapeOfThingsToCome(1970: ) •TalkingHeads:TakeMeToTheRiver(1978: ) •TinaTurner:SteamyWindows(1989:E×6A G) •JohnnyWinter:RockandRollHoochieCoo(1972:E A G) •StevieWonder:HigherGround(1973; E G A) •Z.Z.Top:LaGrange(1973:E E G A) •PinkFloyd:NobodyHome(1979:C C E F C) •Radiohead:Creep(1992:G B C Cm) •OtisRedding:SittingOnTheDockOfTheBay(1967;G B C A) •Will.i.am:YesWeCan(2008:G B Em C)(seeChapter15)
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Type
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Tune(Artist,Year:chords[detail])
•Abba:KnowingMe,KnowingYou(1975c;A C#m D E:interludes) (c) •TheBand:TheWeight(1968;A C#m D A) I-iii-IV? •BeachBoys:ICanHearMusic(1969:D F#m G A;versestarts) ionian •DavidBowie:RockAndRollSuicide(1979;C Em F G Am) mediantal •DavidBowie:ZiggyStardust(1979;G Bm C C) narrative •Dexy’sMidnightRunners:ComeOn,Eileen(1989;C Em F C G) •EricClapton:EasyNow(1970b:D$ Fm G$ A$) •Housemartins:HappyHour(1986:B$ Dm E$ F;hook) •ManfredMann:JustLikeAWoman(Dylan)(1966b:G Bm C D) •Marmalade:MakeItSoon(1969: :chorus) •SmallFaces:ItchycooPark(1967:A C#m G D) •DeadorAlive:YouSpinMeRound(1993:F#m A B) (d) i-$III-IV? •Smiths:WhatDifferenceDoesItMake(1984;Bm D E D:intro.) •WishboneAsh:TheKingWillCome(1972;Dm F G:instrumentals) ‘folk’ •Yardbirds:ForYourLove(1965:Em G A Am) dorian
Itriedtoexplainearlier(p.378)whyIfoundsofewI\IIIshuttles inEnglish‐languagepopularsong,giventhatharmonicdepartures fromItoiiiorIII,orfromeitherIori to$IIIarenotatalluncom‐ mon in the repertoire (Table 37). The reason was, I argued, that, howevernormalitmightbetodepartfromItoIII,theprocessis notreversiblewithoutintroducingatleastoneinterveningchord onthewaybackfromIIItoI.Ifthatobservationisvalid,itexplains whymediantalshuttlesaresorarewhilemediantalloopsarequite common.33
RockdorianandI‐III As mentioned earlier (pp.290‐291), pop use of dorian harmony falls into two categories: those with and those without a perma‐ nent Picardy third on the tonic. Blues‐based rock progressions startingI-$III-IV,asinAliceCooper’sUnderMyWheels(1971)or AC/DC’sShootToThrill(1980),belongtothefirsttype,‘folk’bal‐ ladslikeGreenbackDollar(KingstonTrio,1962:i-$III-$VI-$III)or PaulSimon’sScarboroughFair(1968:i-$VII-i-$III-IV-i)tothesec‐ ond. Since none of these four progressions occur as loops, they don’tappearinthe‘rockdorian’(a)or‘“folk”dorian’(d)sections 33. Mediantandmediantalareexplainedintheglossary(p.492).
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ofTable37butother,loopable,progressionsdo.Thelabelrockdo‐ rianforgroup(a)ofmediantalloopsis,Ithink,reasonablyunprob‐ lematicbecausethethirteensongslistedareallclearlyqualifiable asrockandbecausenineofthosethirteenareintherock‐guitar‐ friendlykeyofE,anothertwoinDorAandonlytwoinflat‐side keys.34Asthenumberofrecordingsinthatgroupsuggests,rock dorianloopsarequitecommon. However,loopsingroup(b)thatstartwithaI-IIIdepartureare very rare, nor do they seem to return to the tonic in exactly the sameway.Onereasonfortheirscarcityasloopsmaybethatde‐ parting to III in classical and jazz harmony involves passing throughVI, IIandVbeforereturningtoI,atotaloffivechords thatarenoteasilycrammedintotheextendedpresentofatwo‐or four‐barloop.Indeed,asnotedinthediscussionof{I-vi-ii/IVV}(pp.408‐415),eventhemerefourchordsofavampcansome‐ timesextendoverdurationstoolongtofunctionasloops.Another reasonmaybethattheinitialchangeI-III,whichIcallthe‘Char‐ lestondeparture’becausethat’showTheCharleston(Mack&John‐ son,1923)starts,35istoocloselyassociatedwithold‐stylejazzhits foritsuseinsoul‐orrock‐influencedmusictobeconsideredstylis‐ ticallyappropriate.Infactit’sinterestingtonotethatalthoughone ofthetuneslistedingroup(b),YesWeCan,proceedsin‘classical’ fashionfromIIItovi,theotherthreedonot.Moreimportantly, none of the four return to the tonic via anything resembling a ‘dominant’butallpassthroughIVontheirwayback,aharmonic trait that suggests how sharpwards rather than flatwards direc‐ tionalitypervadesmanytypesofpost‐warEnglish‐languagepop‐ ularsong.Bethatasitmay,sincetheI-IIIdepartureisdiscussed atsomelengthinthefinalchapterabouttheYesWeCanchords, we’llturnnexttogroup(c)inTable37afterdealingbrieflywithan asyetunexaminedchordloopphenomenon:thedoubleshuttle. 34. Flatside:seeGlossary,p.488.Thelinkbetweendorianharmonyofthistype andblues‐basedstyles—majortriadsonallofthela‐pentatonicmode’sfive notes—isexplainedonpages283‐288. 35. ForfurtherexplanationoftheCharlestondeparture,seeGlossary(p.481).
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Doubleshuttleexcursion Apartfromashortmiddlesection,thewholeofOtisRedding’sSit‐ tingOnTheDockOfTheBayisbasedonthemediantalloop{G-BC-A}({I-III-IV-II}).IhearthefirstchangefromGtoB,four stepssharpward,mirroredinthethirdchangefromCtoA,three stepssharpward.Thereisato‐and‐fronotonlyinsideeachofthese changesbutalso,athalfspeed,betweenGandC.Thehalf‐speed changefromBtoAcreatesaparallelscalarpatternthatreturnsthe looptoitsinitialG.DockOfTheBayincludesinotherwordstwo shuttles(G\BandC\A)containedwithinathird(G\C).36 Doubleshuttlesdon’thavetobemediantal:theycanalsobebimo‐ dal.TheQuiquenitaloop,forexample,{F-C-E7-Am}(ex. 289,p. 441),shuttlesbetweenanionianIV-IinCandanalteredaeolian V-iinAminor.Boththosechangesarerepeatableasindividual shuttlesinpopularAndeanstylesortheycanbecontainedwithin oneloopasadoubleshuttle.IevenhearSolomonBurke’sEvery‐ bodyNeedsSomebody({E-A-D-A} = {I-IV-$VII-IV})asamixoly‐ diandoubleshuttle,consistingofaI-IVinEandaI-VinD,allin‐ sidethelargershuttleE\D.37
Ionianmediantal‘narrative’and‘folk’dorian There’snoreallyclearstylisticcommondenominatorfortunes listedinTable37’sgroup(c).ExceptforTheWeight,possiblycate‐ gorisableas‘folkrock’,mostoftunesarequalifiableaspoprather thanrock,includingtheEricClaptonandBowierecordings.Given thateitherIIorviimustbepresentfortertialharmonytoqualify aslydian,andthatneithermixolydian,nordorian,noraeolian,nor phrygianmodesfeaturethethreetertialtriadsI, iiiandIV,the 36. Thewholeloopconsistsofshuttleswithinashuttleandcanbeabbreviated {G [G-B]- C[C-A]}or[G-B]\[C-A]. 37. TheRollingStonesandWilsonPickettversionsareinE.TheBluesBrothers filmrenderingisinC#,whileBurkehimselfdeclaimeditinGfromhisthrone whenhisEverybodyNeedsSomebodywasnº2onBBC’sTopofthePopsin2003.I alsoheartheFineYoungCannibals’dorian(andmediantal){D-F-Am-G} ({I-$III-v-IV})inGoodThing(1987)asadoubleshuttle.
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group(c)loopsmustbegiventhemodallabelionian.38Thatwould explainthelackofrockcitationsbutitsaysverylittleabouttheIiii-IVloop’sconnotations.Nevertheless,thelyricstoalltunesin thegroupexceptIHearMusic(ablissfullovesong)involvesome degreeofworry,concernorreflection:theAbbasongaboutthe hardshipsofbreakingup,TheWeightabouteveryoneelsethrusting theirproblemsontoyou,RockandRollSuicideaboutapsychologi‐ callyunstablefriendorlover,andsoon.39AsweshallseeinChap‐ ter15(pp.471‐473),I-iii,continuingusuallytoeitherIVorvi,is quiteacommondepartureinpopularsong,moreoftenwith acousticthanelectricaccompaniment,inwhichsingableionian ‘folk‐type’melodiesgivespacetolyricalnarrative.Itisforthisrea‐ sonthatI’vedubbedthegroup(c)loops‘ionianmediantalnarra‐ tive’.However,sincechordalloops,notdepartures,arethesubject ofthischapter,the‘narrative’labelmaybeasymptomofexcessive interpretativelicenseonmypart,especiallygiventhatthesample ofsongslistedinthegroupissosmall.Theproblemwithgroup (d),‘“folk”dorian’,issimilar. AfewpagesbackIwarnedthat‘folk’balladslikeGreenbackDollar (Kingston Trio, 1962) and Paul Simon’s Scarborough Fair (1968) wouldnotbelistedinTable37becausetheiri-$III…changesdo notoccurinloops.Nordotheanyofthenumerousi-$IIIsheard inharmonisationsofruralpopularmusicinthedorianoraeolian modefromtheBritishIsles.40Nor,even,doesTheHouseOfTheRis‐ 38. ItchycooParkistheonlyexceptionsinceitsloopcontains$VII(GinA). 39. Tocontinue:[1]ZiggyStardustisaveryoddrockandrollfantasycharacter who‘tookitalltoofarbut…couldplayguitar’;[2]Dexy’sEileenisanobjectof desirebutthesceneissetamongoldpeoplewithreferencestooldentimes;[3] EricClaptonbegs‘her’nottoleavebecauseitwillhurt;[4]InHappyHourthe Housemartinsask‘isthisagoodplacetobe?Don’tbelieveit!’,theanswer because‘theyallopentheirwalletsandtheyallclosetheirminds’;[5]the DylanlyricsperformedbyManfredManntalkofthewomanwho‘takes’and ‘aches’but‘whobreaksjustlikealittlegirl’;[6]Marmalade(UKMoRgroup) ismissing‘her’andask‘her’topleasewriteandtocomehomesoon;[7]even TheSmallFaceswhogototheparktogethighhavetocrybecause‘it’salltoo beautiful’.
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ingSun(Animals,1964)becauseitswell‐knownAm-C-D-F(i-$IIIIV-$VI)worksnotasaloopbutasananaphoraleadinginboth eight‐barperiodstoadifferentcadencepattern:[1]Am-C-E-E(bars 5‐8); [2] Am-E-Am-Am (bars 13‐16). The simpletruth is that‘folk’ tunes don’t tend to be harmonisable as loops whereas pop and rock,aswellassomeLatinAmericanstyles,usethemfrequently. Andthat’swhythetuneslistedinTable37’scategory(d)aresucha motleybunch:oneglam‐synth‐popoffering(DeadorAlive),one disturbinglyexistentialpieceofkitchen‐sinkpop(TheSmiths),one slightly Tolkienesque prog rock recording (Wishbone Ash) and oneattemptbyTheYardbirdstoproducesomethingtosoundas successfulandassimilaraspossibletoHouseOfTheRisingSun.In short, it’s clearly impossible to draw any conclusions about the connotationsorstylistichomegroundofloopsingroup(d),even though‘folkdorian’maynotbeanaltogetherunreasonablename togivechordsequencesstartingi-$III-IV. Mediantsmaybemidwaybetweenatonicanditsfifthbut,asal‐ readysuggested,bymovingfromItoamajor‐key‐specificIIIor iii,thattertialtriadonthemediantbecomesamediator,aninterme‐ diarystepbetweenthetonicandanotherharmonyelsewhere.In‐ deed,theconsiderableirreversibilityofI-IIImeans,asargued earlier,thatmediantalshuttlesareprobablytoofewtobecounted. Moreover,I’verackedmybrainandothermusicalresourcesto findasingleIIIoriiiactingasincomingchordinathree‐orfour‐ chordloop:outgoing(departure),yes,asinTable37,sections(b) and(c);medial,yes,asintheversesofSheLovesYou(Beatles, 1963b:{G-Em-Bm-D} = {I-vi-iii-V});butincoming(arrival),no, notasingleone.41 Thisallmeansthatmediantalharmonycannotbesatisfactorily dealtwithinabookwhoseharmonicscopehasforpracticalrea‐ sonshadtobelimitedtoshuttles,loopsandone‐chordchanges. 40. See,forexample,TheLowlandsOfHollandandTheBlacksmith(SteeleyeSpan, 1970).
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Longerharmonicsequences,harmonicform,harmonicdepartures andsoonmustregrettablybetopicsforanotherbookaboutevery‐ daytonality.Nevertheless,eventhoughthefinalchapterexamines onlyonechordloop,I’llbereferringtothoseothertopicsandbe devotingmoreattentiontothemeaningofparticularchordse‐ quences.Afterall,harmonyisnotprimarilyatheoreticalissue:itis apracticalmatterofinterhumancommunication.
41. TheRollingStones1964singleLittleRedRooster,basedonHowlin’Wolf’s1961 recordingofaWillieDixonblues,wasaccompaniedthroughoutby{À QEeAq Ge Eh.U h. } ({I-IV-$III-I})onslideguitar,i.e.with$IIIasincoming chordintheloop.I’mnotreferringtotriadsontheminorthird,onlytotertial triadsonthemajorthird(IIIandiii,not$III).
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FFBk15Obama.fm. 2014-08-02, 01:53
FFBk15Obama.fm.2014‐08‐02,01:53STILLTOEDIT!!!
15.The‘YesWeCan’chords Thischapterstartedasasimplereplytoasimplequestionsentby CarolVernallistotheIASPM 1onlinelistinJanuary2009.She askedthepopularmusicstudiescommunity:‘doesanyonehave thoughtsonthechordprogressionofYesWeCanoronthemusicas wellasthepopsongsitmightbeechoing?’Goodquestion!By‘Yes WeCan’CarolwasreferringtotheObamapresidentialcampaign videoofthesamename(Adams2008).2IASPMmemberresponses toCarol’squestioncanbesummarisedinthefollowingsixpoints. [1] Mike Daley and Allan Moore reflected on the GOING SOME‐ WHEREELSEpotentialoftheBmajorchordandontherelativeCOM‐ FORT AND SECURITY aspect of the plagal turnaround change (the chordloopendsonIVtobefollowedbyIasthefirstchordinthe loop). [2] Allan Moore suggested similar progressions in record‐ ingslikeELO’sJungle(1973),JimmyRuffin’sWhatBecomesOfThe Brokenhearted (1966) and Neil Young’s Southern Man (1970).3 [3] BarbaraBradbyreferredtoOtisRedding’sDockOfTheBay(1968), an intertextual similarity noted by several of my Montréal stu‐ dents.BradbyalsoobservedmelodicsimilaritybetweentheYesWe Canphrasesungat0:31intheObamavideoandtheinitial‘When thenight’phraseofBenEKing’sStandByMe(1961).[4]Matthew BannisterpointedtosimilaritieswithBobMarleyandTheWailers’ No Woman No Cry (1974), another connection noted by my stu‐ dents,andtopossibleanthemicconnotationsinAnotherGirlAn‐ otherPlanetbyTheOnlyOnes(1978).[5]DaniloOrozcosuggested 1. 2.
3.
InternationalAssociationfortheStudyofPopularMusic,see|iaspm.net|. Thevideo,whichwasneverofficiallysanctionedbytheObamacampaign, wentonlineinFebruary2008andhadbythefollowingJulybeenwatched over21milliontimes.Thevideo,by‘will.i.am’(stagenameforWilliam Adams),wasdirectedbyJesse(sonofBob)Dylan.Source:|en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Will.i.am| [090315]. SouthernMan’schordloop{Em |C Am} /{Em Em7 C Am}willnotbedis‐ cussedinthisarticle.Itisreallyavariantoftheaeolianshuttle(p.389,ff.).
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similaritiestoharmonicmatricesofSpanishorigininLatinAmer‐ ica.[6]DavidUskovichreferredtoJourney’sDonʹtStopBelieving (1981).4 ThislistofintertextualassociationsaddsuptoafairsetofIOCM,5 suchasmightoccurinagoodpopularmusicseminarwheremuse‐ maticanalysisistheorderofthedayandwhereallreferencesare relevant,butsomemoresothanothers.
Thefourchords Beforestartingonanymusematicanalysis,Ineedtobeasclearas possibleinconventionalstructuraltermsabouttheharmonicpro‐ gressionwe’redealingwith.LikemyIASPMcolleagues,Ihearda four‐chordloopcoveringfourbarsof4/4running G|B|Em|C or,inrelativeterms, I|III|vi|IV (Fig.1).6 Fig.71.
ThefourYesWeCanchordscapturedfromYouTube(Adams2008)
Thesequencerunsat q=100andis Ex.291. YesWeCanguitarac‐ comp.pattern heardrepeatedlyforthefirst2:28of thesong’stotaldurationof4:26.Itis playedonanacousticguitarwithsix metal (not nylon) strings. Apart fromtheB(III)inbar2,takenasan Abarréonthesecondfret,allchordsareplayedinfirstposition. WiththeexceptionoftheCchord,whosehigherc(firstfretonthe Bstring)isreplacedbyad(thirdfret)tocreatea‘droned’C*9ef‐ 4. 5. 6.
MyowncommentsweresenttotheIASPMliston19January2009. IOCM=interobjectivecomparisonmaterial,seeGlossary,p.495. I’massumingthekeynoteofthepiecetobeG(I)eventhoughthematrixand theentirerecordingactuallyendonC(IV).
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fect,nochordcontainsnotesextraneoustothecommon(tertial) triadinquestion.7AllfourchordsintheYesWeCansequenceare rhythmicallyarticulatedinsimilar(oridentical)waystothat showninFigure2forthetonic(G).Therootofeachchordisusu‐ allysoundedastwoquavers,thesecondslightlymuffled,followed bythechord’sremainingnotesaseitherone(q)ortwostrummed downstrokes( iq )coveringthreeorfouroftheguitar’supper strings:forexample,thetopginthechordsjustshownisnotal‐ waysaudible. Ican’tthinkofanotherpieceofmusicansweringexactlytoallthe traitsjustdescribed.Intertextualreferencesprovidedbymystu‐ dentsandmyself,aswellasthosefromIASPMcolleaguesinthe onlineexchange,allexhibitsomecommonstructuraltraitsbut,as weshallsee,somecomparisonpiecesmaybemorerelevantthan others.Intertextualreferencesneedinotherwordstobemorefo‐ cussed.
LaterenaissanceandAndeanbimodality DaniloOrozco’sreferencetoharmonicmatricesthatCarlosVega wouldhaveprobablycalledbimodalisinterestingbecausethereis onecommondenominatorbetweentheYesWeCanchordsand,for example,therecordingofGuardamelasvacasherefersto.8The GuardamelasvacaschordsOrozcomentionsaresimilartothoseof LafoliawhoseubiquitythroughoutEuropeinthelaterenaissance isprobablycomparabletothatofthetwelve‐barbluesinmid‐ twentieth‐centuryUSA.OnevariantoftheLafoliachordalmatrix runsasfollows: 7. 8.
TheCchordatthestartoftheDixieChicks’NotReadyToMakeNice(2006)uses thesameadd9effect.Seeyoutube.com/watch?v=IHH8bfPhusM [090206]. AsCarlosVega(1944:160)putit,referringtomusicinsuchtraditions,‘[n]o haymelodiasenmayorymelodiasenminor:haysimplementemelodias bimodales’;seealsop.441,ff.
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Table38 OneLafoliamatrixvariantinG/Em 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
chords
G
D
Em
B
G
D
Em‐B
Em
inEm
$III
$VII
i
V
$III
$VII
i‐v
i
inG
I
V
vi
III
I
V
vi‐III
vi
bars
Ifthefinalis,Eminor,inthiseight‐barmatrixisregardedasthe maintonic,itsrelativechordfunctionswillbethoseofthemiddle linejustshown.If,ontheotherhand,youhearthematrixinGma‐ jor(thekeyoftheinitialis),perhapstheitalicisedlinewillbemore correct?Well,notreally,becausethematrixsoclearlyendswithan unequivocalV?i (B?Em)perfectcadence.Besides,withLafoliaas shownabove,Eminorisprecededorfollowedonlybymajortriads ofeitherD($VII)orB(V),bothofwhichare,intermsofEuropean classicalharmony,dominantaltoE,especiallythechordondegree V(B,alteredtoincludethekey’ssharpseventh,d#,insteadofthe key‐specifictriadsBmandDwiththeird8).Moreover,thereisat theturnaroundpointnocadentialrelationship,neitherplagalnor dominantal,betweenthefinalisandthefollowinginitialis.The samegoesformanyhuayno‐stylechordloops,forexamplethe four‐chord C‐G‐B‐Em inLosCalchakis’versionofQuiquenita (Laflûteindienne,1966;ex.289,p.441).Iamunabletohearthetotal‐ ityofthatprogressioninG( IV‐I‐III‐vi ):italwayssoundstome like $VI‐$III‐V‐i ,i.e.asprincipally,thoughnotexclusively,inE minor.9 Thelongandshortofthisbriefexcursionintolaterenaissanceand Andeanharmonicmatricesisthat,unliketheYesWeCanchords, they:[1]endwithcleardominantal(V‐i)cadencesintheminorkey; [2]startonatriadoftherelativemajororrelativesubdominant major;[3]areoftentwiceaslong.Consideringotherparametersof musicalexpressionassociatedwiththeYesWeCanchords,itis worthrememberingthat:[4]theAndean/laterenaissanceIOCM’s
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tempoismoreoftenthannotnoticeablyfasterthan q=100;[5]that theirmetreisnotusually4/4buteither3/4or6/8orahemiolamix‐ tureofthetwo;[6]thatanystrummingofstringedchordalinstru‐ mentsismuchquicker;[7]thatthetimbreofasteel‐stringedacous‐ ticguitarisunusual,whilethatofagutornylon‐stringedguitaris lessunusual(a‘Spanish’guitarsound),andthatofamoretrebly, janglysoundofabandola,tipleorcharangomuchmorecommon. It’sforthesereasonsthatwhileitmaybeinterestingtospeculatein apossiblegeneralcommonalityofdivergencefromthetertial sonicimageof‘classical’harmonyandthesortof NINETEENTH‐ CENTURY URBAN EUROPEANNESS thatgoeswithit,Idon’tthink thosestructuralsimilaritiesarestrikingenoughtomakeacasefor furtherinterobjectivecomparisoninthisdirection.Inwhatfol‐ lows,Iwillthereforetrytorestrictcomparisonstomaterialthat morecloselyresemblestheYesWeCanchordsonasmanycounts aspossible.
Fourchords,fourchanges Investigatingthemeaningofachordsequencemeanstryingto findintertextualinstancesofallitschordchanges.Tautologous thoughthismaysound,it’sworthrememberingthat,unlessthe matrixstartsandendsonthesamechord,athree‐chordsequence containsthreechanges,afour‐chordsequencefourandsoon.This truismhastobestatedbecauseitiseasytooverlookoneofthe chordloop’smostimportanttonalpoints:theturnaroundchange 9.
Infact,whenproducingaChilesolidaritysongforourband(Solidaritetssång förChilesfolk,RödaKapellet,1974),Iopted,withoutatthetimereflectingwhy, forthematrix $VI‐$III‐V‐i ( F‐C‐E‐Am ).Allmusiciansinvolvedinits performance,plusPedrovanderLee(Argentinian/Swedishmusicologistand huaynoperformer),assumedthepiecetobeinAminor,notCmajor.The othertunesmentionedbyOrozcoexhibitsimilartraits.PoloMargariteñoisalso bimodal—GD(B)EmAmBEm—andRioManzanaresruns,abitlikeQui‐ aquenita—GCEAm($VII‐$III‐V‐i;seep.441,ff.).TheElidaNuñesversionof UruchaqinareferredtobyOrozcoismelodicallybimodalbuttheperformance containsnorealharmonicchange.Thereisakindofpermanentfluxbetween AmandC.Seefootnote8,p.455forVega’scommentonbimodality.
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fromthelastchordbacktothefirstone.InYesWeCanit’stheplagal (IV?I)movefromCtoG.Infact,it’sthatchange,ratherthanthe V?vi(DtoEm)inthemiddleoftheloop,thatownsanyrealfinal‐ itypotential.10 Plagalmovementsharpwardsroundthecircleoffifthsisalmostas commoninstyleslikegospel,country,folkrockandblues‐based rockasitisuncommonintheflatwardscircle‐of‐fifthsworldof Corellitriosonatas,Wagneroperas,Victorianparloursong,jazz standardsandsoon.11YesWeCan’splagalturnaroundchangemay infactbeonereasonwhywearemorelikelytohearthetuneas popularandNorthAmericanratherthanclassicalandEuropean. WemayevenhearsomeAMEN,gospelormajorpentatonicfolk songreferencesinthatsortofchange,butitisdifficulttobemore connotativelyspecificaboutIV?I asachordchangeinthosestyles becauseitissuchanidiomaticallycommonharmonicstep.Itcan alsobethepreferredharmonicfinalitymarkerformanysongsin thebroadrangeofEnglish‐languagepopularsongtraditionsjust mentioned.12Solet’sinvestigatethefirstchangeinthesequencein‐ stead.ItisafteralllessusualthanIV?I.
Firstimpressions:fromzeroto I Itissaidthatyounevergetasecondchancetomakeafirstimpres‐ sion.Thatadagecertainlyappliestoharmonicdeparturesbecause thesecondchordinanysequenceistheonecreatingthatfirstim‐ 10. TheBtoEminorchangemaybemoredominantallydirectional(asasortof interruptedcadence)butitoccurssoclearlymidwaythroughthesequence thatithasmorethecharacteroftemporarytonalprogressionthanoffinality. 11. Forexample,Hendrix’sHeyJoe: CGDAE (plagal)comparedtoSweet GeorgiaBrown:(B)E A D G(dominantal).Sometypesofpost‐bobjazzestab‐ lishothertonalrulesbutalmostallotherjazzreliesononV?I,notIV?I, directionality. 12. TheDixieChicksendbothNotReadyToMakeNiceandTakingTheLongWay Round(2006)V-IV[-I],amoreidiomaticsequencethanV-I.Theionianmode andV‐IarenotuncommoninsomeformsofCountrymusicbuttheirabsence isalsofarfromunusual.Thistonaltraitmayderivefromtherelativeprepon‐ derance,intraditionalAfro‐andBritish‐Americanmusics,ofmodeswithout leadingnote(#7).
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pressionofharmonicchangeordirection.However,beforedis‐ cussingYesWeCan’sI?IIIdeparture,it’sworthconsideringthe veryfirstchange,thechangetakinglistenersfrommusicalnothing tosomething,i.e.frombeforeandoutsidethemusictothefirst soundofthesong.Thefirst‐positionacousticguitarGchordinYes WeCanisimportantbecauseitssoundcreatesthesong’strulyfirst impression. Initialfirst‐positionGchords,strummedorsimplypickedona metalsix‐stringacousticguitarataneasyormoderatetempo,oc‐ curatthestartofthefollowingBobDylanrecordings:TheTimes TheyAreA‐Changing(1964a),ItAin’tMeBabe(1964b),JohnWesley Harding(1968),GeorgeJackson(1971)andKnockin’OnHeaven’sDoor (1973).13Theyalsooccurasfirst‐chordtonicsinafairnumberof WoodyGuthriesongs,forexampleinOklahomaHills(1937),Grand CouleeDam(1945)andTwoGoodMen(1946?).14Thefirstsoundin YesWeCanisinotherwordsvirtuallyidenticaltothefirstsoundin severalpopularsongsbywell‐knownUSsinger‐songwritersasso‐ ciatedwithprogressivepoliticsandsocialchange.Whethersuch allusionswereintendedornotinYesWeCan,thenewUSpresi‐ dent’selectionpromisesofchangeandsocialjusticecouldcer‐ tainlyhavebeenlinkedtomuchlessappropriatefiguresofthena‐ tion’spopularmusictraditionsthanWoodyGuthrieorBobDylan. Justimaginethesights,soundsandwordsofartistslikeAlice Cooper,CharlieDanielsorBarryWhiteasmusicalaccompaniment foranelectionplatformofresponsiblegovernment!15Obviously, 13. GmajorisclearlyoneofDylan’spreferredkeys.Thefollowingsongsarealso allinG,thougharticulateddifferentlythaninTheTimesTheyAreA‐Changing orYesWeCan:IPityThePoorImmigrant(in3/4,1968),IShallBeReleased (swung),Lay,Lady,Lay(withorganandsteelguitar,1969),Don’tThinkTwice (systematicpicking,1963)andIt’sAllOverNowBabyBlue(Gplayedusing capoused,1965). 14. Afirst‐positiontonicGalsomarksthestartofotherGuthriesongslikeAllYou FascistsAreBoundToLose(1944a)andHeyLollyLolly(1944b).EvenGuthrie’s everpopularThisLandIsYourLand(1944c),sungatObama’sinaugurationfes‐ tivities,startsonanopenGeventhoughthetuneisinDwithitschordloop G|D|A|D .
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there’smuchmoreresonance,bothlyricallyandsonically,between Obama’s‘It’stimeforachange’andTheTimesTheyAreA‐Changing. AnothersignificantpointaboutYesWeCan’sGchord,withitsfour openstringsanddoubledthird(b8ontheAandBstrings),isthat, liketheothertwofirst‐positionchordsintheloop(EmandC),itis easyforanypartyorcamp‐fireamateurguitaristtoproduce.G, EmandCareallchordsaboutwhichmillionsofNorthAmericans couldsay‘Yeswecan’.NordoesYesWeCan’ssecondchord,B, takenasastandardAmajorshapewithabarréonthesecondfret, presentanymajortechnicalchallengetothesemi‐skilledama‐ teur.16Butit’snotsomuchthatpoïeticaccessibilityinitselfthatis semioticallyimportantasitsmeaningtothenon‐guitar‐playing majority.Thankstothefactthatthoseeasychordsarewithinthe capabilitiesofasignificantguitarplayingminority,themajority havethroughrepeatedexposuretosuchchordsplayedinasimple wayonguitar,learnttoassociatethemwiththewords,ideasand situationstheyaccompany.
Harmonicdeparture:from Ito III JarabedePalo:GritaG‐B‐Em‐Cloop(1996)(inbib) AndresCalamaro‐Flaca(Videoclip)sameloop https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UCF9oHXhDMU MalditaNerea‐ElSecretoDeLasTortugas https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5juCY0S10o0 15. Forexample,School’sOut(Cooper1972),AFewMoreRednecks(Daniels1989),I Can’tGetEnoughOfYourLoveBabe(White1974). 16. Theeasiestguitarchordstoproduce,infirstposition,areE,Em,G,A,Am,C, DandDm.Ihavenoguitartrainingwhatsoeverbutcanmanagetoproduce thoseeightchordswithoutmuchdifficulty.Icanevenmanage,usuallysev‐ eralmillisecondslate,toproducesimplebarréchordslikeYesWeCan’sB.I cannotbringtomindasinglepopular‘protest’songintheEnglish‐language folkorfolkrocktraditionsthatisn’tinoneofthoseeightkeys,theleastcom‐ monofwhichwouldbeDminor.GandDmajorarecertainlyamongthemost commonkeysforsuchmusic.
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Maná12Somosmaryarena https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dwgUJCxgB1o I?III(GtoBinYesWeCan)isneitherthemostusualnorunusual harmonicdepartureinEnglish‐languagepopularmusic:I?IV, I?V, I?vi,probablyalsoI?iiandI?iiiareprobablyallmore commonthanI?IIIwhich,perhaps,mayevenbelessusualthan I?II, I?$IIIorI?$VII,butprobablymorecommonthanI?$VI (seeMoore,1992).17 Whateverthecase,thenumberofpieces,orsectionsofpieces,that havecometomyattentionfromanatleastpartiallyrelevantreper‐ toireandwhichstartI?IIIisnotveryimpressive.Theeleven songsare,inalphabeticalorder:[1]Abilene(GeorgeHamiltonIV 1963);[2]Bell‐BottomBlues(EricClapton1970a);[3]TheCharleston (GoldenGateOrchestra1925);[4]Crazy(PatsyCline1961);[5] Creep(Radiohead1992);[6]Jungle(ElectricLightOrchestra1979); [7]NobodyKnowsYouWhenYou’reDownAndOut(BessieSmith 1929);18[8]SittingOnTheDockOfTheBay(OtisRedding1968);[9] Who’sSorryNow(ConnieFrancis,1957);[10]WomanIsTheNigger OfTheWorld(JohnLennon1975);[11]AWorldWithoutLove(Peter &Gordon1964).19Withoutinitiallyknowingwhy,Ifoundthat onlythreeofthoseelevenpiecessoundedenoughlikeYesWeCan tobeusedasconvincingIOCMforthechordsequenceunderana‐ lysis.Sincethatsortof‘intuition’isnotmuchuseinitself,I’lltryto identifyandexplaindifferencesinparametersofmusicalexpression operativeinconnectionwiththeI?IIIdeparturesharedbyboth YesWeCanandtheelevencomparisonpieces.Thatprocessofelim‐ 17. JacopoContiinformedmebyemail(2012‐06‐11)thattheguitarintroduction toUnderTheBridge(RedHotChiliPeppers1992)isaIˆIIIshuttle(DˆF#). 18. SeealsoversionsbyClapton(1971,1992)andWinwood(1967). 19. ItwouldhavebeennicetoincludetheI-III-IVintheIV-V-I-III-IV-V-Iat theendofJohnLennon’sImagine(1971):[IV]‘Youmay[V]sayI’ma[I] dreamer[III]butI’m[IV]nottheonly[I]one;[IV]Ihopesome[V]day you’ll[I]joinus[III - IV]andthe[V]worldwill[I]liveasone’.Regrettably,I hadtoexcludethatreferencebecauseitsIIIisneitherafirstdeparture,nor followedbyvi.
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inationoughttosharpenfocusonthemostsalientfeaturesofthe YesWeCanchordloop. Firstofalltherearetwostrictlyharmonicfeaturesthatseemto makeasemioticdifferencetothecharacteroftheI?IIIdeparture: basslinesandcontinuations.BassnotesintheYesWeCanloopare allontherootofthetriadwhereasClapton’sBell‐BottomBlues (1970a)usesaconjunctdescendingbasslinesothatthechordsac‐ tuallyrunI-IIIs-vi-[Is-]-IV (thebassnotesinGwouldbeg f# e [d] c,thechordsG-Df# ‐Em‐Gd‐C),aprogressioncontainingtwochords ininversion.Now,thankstofamousprecedentslikeWhiterShade OfPale/Bach’sAir(I-Vq-vi-Is ,etc.,Bach,1731;ProcolHarum 1967a),chordinversionsinconjunctbasslinesarequiteareliable popsignof‘classicalness’.It’sadevicewhichtakesthetunein questionoutofthepopularparticipationsphereofthingslikeYes WeCan’sstrum‐alongguitarandroot‐positiontriads,andwhich, byusingbothconjunctbasslinesandinvertedtriads,gentrifiesthe pieceinquestion.That’sjustonereasonfortreatinganobvious structuralsimilaritylikeasharedI?IIIdeparturewithcaution. Thesecondharmonicreasonfordoubtingtherelevanceofsome I?IIIcomparisonmaterialiscontinuation.Forexample,onlytwo oftheelevenIOCMpieces(DockOfTheBayandCreep)feature I?IIIatthestartofafour‐chordloop.Manyoftheothersgoontoin‐ cludechainsofflatwardcircle‐of‐fifthschangesincompatiblewith theoveralltonalidiomofYesWeCan.Moreover,parameterslike tempo,accompanimentpatternandinstrumentationcanalso makesomeI?IIIchangessoundquiteunlikeYesWeCan’s. TheCharleston(q=96)andWho’sSorryNow(q=88),forexample,al‐ thoughperformedatatemposimilartoYesWeCan(q=100),are verydifferentintermsofinstrumentation,rhythmisationandhar‐ moniccontinuation.ThetradjazzbandorchestrationofTheChar‐ leston,nottomentionitslo‐fi78rpmrecordingsound,and,in Who’sSorryNow,thehalf‐electrified1950spopcombo,complete withconstantpianotripletsreminiscentofStanFreberg’s‘clink‐ clink‐clinkjazz’,20arebothafarcryfromYesWeCan’ssimply
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playedacousticguitarnotesandtriads.ThecontinuationofI-III inTheCharlestonandWho’sSorryNowintoastringofdominantal fallingfifths(I-III-VI-II-V-Iinthebrass‐and‐sax‐friendlykeysof B$andE$)areotherobviousindicationsofmusicalstylesandcon‐ notationsonadistantplanetfromthoseofYesWeCan.Thetwo Countrynumbers(AbileneandCrazy)canalsobeeliminatedfrom theIOCMforsimilarreasonsofincompatibilityofinstrumenta‐ tion,accompanimentalpatternandcontinuation.21 WhenYou’reDownandOut(q .=90,12/8),SittingontheDockoftheBay (q=103,4/4)andCreep(q=92,4/4),ontheotherhand,allgoatasim‐ ilarpacetoYesWeCanandareallpartoftheinternational,Anglo‐ American,post‐1955poprepertoire.Althoughnoneofthesethree songsfeaturesimplystrummedacousticguitartheydobearmore resemblancetoYesWeCanthandoTheCharleston,Who’sSorryNow, AbileneandCrazy.Nevertheless,thereareseveralimportantpoints ofstructuraldifferencebetweenthethreetunesunderdiscussion (DownAndOut;DockOfTheBay;Creep)and,ontheotherhand,Yes WeCan.Forexample,allrecordingsofDownandOut,whetherat q.=90,asbyBessieSmith(1929)orEricClapton(1992),or,much slower,asbyClapton(1970)orStevieWinwood(1966),allfeature aslowbluesshuffleaccompaniment( ¼evenifnotatedo)using eithercornet,pianoandtubaaccompaniment(BessieSmith),or electricguitar,Hammondorgananddrumkit(ClaptonandWin‐ wood),whiletheYesWeCanchordsarestatedinstraightquavers (iiiq).22Moreover,theinitialI-IIIofDownandOutcontinues intoafallingfifthsprogressionincludingVI(EorE7),notvi(Em), thenii(Am)and,afterpassingthroughchordslike#iv% (C#J),to II7 (A7),V7 (D7)andI (G).Neitherdiminishedchordsnorex‐ 20. SeeFreberg’sparody(1956)ofThePlatters’TheGreatPretender(1955). 21. ThechordsofAbilene(briskswing4/4)runG|B|C|G|A|D|GC|G[D]|,those ofCrazyG|B7|Em|Em|D|D7|G|G[D]|(mediumslowballad).Who’sSorry NowgoesE$|G7|C7|F7|B$7|E$etc.inE$atq=88andTheCharleston B$|D7|G7|C7|F7|B$atq=96inB$. 22. Forexample,theClapton(1972)recordingrunsatq.=56.
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tendedflatwardcircle‐of‐fifthsmovementistobeheardanywhere inYesWeCan.Itisconceivedinadifferenttimbral,metric,rhyth‐ micandtonalidiomaltogether. SittingOnTheDockOfTheBay(Redding,1968),ontheotherhand, runsinstraightquavers(iiiq)andpresentsthefourchordsofits sequenceatvirtuallythesamerate(q=104)asYesWeCan:I-III-IVII (G-B-C-A).ThisDockoftheBaysequenceisitselfremarkablebe‐ causeitcontainsnotasingleplagal(IV?I)ordominantal(V?I) change.Onlythe19‐secondbridgepassage(1:24‐1:43)ofthesong’s totaldurationof2:45includesaverybrief$VII?V?Iprogression (1:37‐1:43)toleadbackintothevirtuallydirectionlesssequenceof chordsoccupyingallbutafewsecondsoftherecording.TheDock oftheBaysequenceisalsointerestingbecauseitconsistsoftwo pairsofchords:[1]IandIV(GandC)arenexttoeachotherinthe circleoffifths;[2]IIIandII(BandA)arebothwellonthesharp sideofIandIVandtheyareonlyseparatedfromeachotherbyVI (E)inthecircleoffifths.Butthefourchordsaren’tplayedinthat sortoforder—tryG-C-A-BorG-B-A-C[-G]instead—becauseIand III(G?B)belongtogetherinonephrasetowhichReddingsings ‘Sittingonthedockofthebay’,afterwhichhebreathes.Afterthat halfwaycesurahesings‘Watchingthetiderollin’tothesecond halfofthechordloop(itsIV?IIpart,C?A),asortofI-VIinCech‐ oingthesamesortofchangeastheI-IIIinthefirsthalf,G?B). Therewouldbenothingremarkableaboutthatdivisionofthese‐ quenceifthetwotertialtriadsineachhalfwereclosertoeachother onthekeyclock,butthatisnotso.Thesecondtriadofeachpairis situatednotjustoneortwoquintalstepsawayfromthefirstbutat adistanceoffour(I-III/G-B)andthree(IV-II/C‐A)stepsrespec‐ tively.ThisiswhatmakestheDockoftheBaysequencesoundmore liketwosimilarchordshuttlesplayedoneaftertheother—con‐ stantto‐and‐fromovement—ratherthanlikeachordloopsuchas I-vi-IV-VorI-V-$VII-IV.Thisto‐and‐fromovementinDockofthe Bay,enhancedbytheadditionofseasidesoundeffectslikewaves washinginandout,isofcourseabsentinYesWeCanwhosechord
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sequencecontainstwoveryclearneighbour‐keychordchanges: B?Em(III?vi,dominantal)andC?G (IV?I,plagal),givingitan definiteloopratherthandoubleshuttlecharacter.23 NoneofthismeansSittingOnTheDockOfTheBayisinadmissible asIOCMevidencefortheYesWeCanchords.EventhoughtheRed‐ dingrecording’sshuttlecharacter,itsharmoniccontinuationand itsorchestrationdifferclearlyfromYesWeCan,itsbridgerepeatsa shortmelodicphrasetype(at‘Nothing’sgonnachange’,‘Ican’tdo whattenpeopletellmetodo’,etc.,1:24‐1:37)thatrecursinsimilar guiseat0:31inYesWeCan(‘Itwassungbyimmigrants’).24AsBar‐ baraBradbypointedoutinherIASPM‐listposting,thatphrasein YesWeCanisquiteclosetoBenEKing’sinitial‘Whenthenight’ declamationinStandByMe(1961).Iwouldaddthatthosemelodic phrasesineachofthethreesongscanbecharacterisedasproclam‐ atory,sincereandpassionate.Iwouldalsocharacterisethephrase typeastypicalofmalesoulleadvocalistsfromthe1960s(e.g.Otis Redding,WilsonPickett,MarvinGaye)andassociablewiththe CivilRightsstruggleandwiththesortofsocialprocessesthatHar‐ alambosdocumentsinRightOn!FromBluestoSoulinBlackAmerica (1974).Ifthereisanytruthinthisinterpretationofthephraseat 23. Pleasenotethedistinctionbetweenchordshuttle(whatBjörnberg(1989)calls pendulum)andchordloop.Shuttlesgotoandfro;loopsgoround.Youneedat leastthreedifferentpointstocreateatwo‐dimensionalshape.Themoreangles inatwo‐dimensionalshape,themoreitwillresembleacircle.Abaseballdia‐ mondhasfourangles(‘bases’)as,indeed,doesarounderspitch.Youcaneven takeawalkroundacompletelyrectangularblock.Youjustcanʹtgoroundina straightlinebetweentwopoints,atleastnotinNewtonianphysics.It’sthe samewithchordsequences. Incidentally,SittingOnTheDockOfTheBayalsocontainstheobligatory seashoregullsoundsinadditiontothewashinginandoutofwaves. DylanKell‐Kirkman(MontréalM.A.studentandbassplayer)toldmethat theG‐BpartoftheReddingloopmakeshimthinkofbreathingin,going up,andtheC‐Apartofbreathingout,goingdown,likeasighofresigna‐ tion.Formoreonthedoubleshuttle,seep.449. 24. ThecontextofthatphraseinthelyricsofYesWeCanisasfollows.‘”Yeswe can”.Itwassungbyimmigrantsastheystruckoutfromdistantshoresand pioneerswhopushedwestwardagainstanunforgivingwilderness.“Yeswe can”’.
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0:31inYesWeCan,theconnectionwiththeI‐IIIinDockOfTheBay becomesoneofcircularreinforcementbycross‐association.That chainofconnotationscontainsthefollowingsortofindexicallinks: [1]amelodicphraseinYesWeCanresemblesmelodicarchetypes sungbymalevocalistsinlate1960ssoulmusic;[2]thatmusicat thattimewasoftenassociatedwithamorehopefulandassertive imageamongAfricanAmericansintheUSA;[3]oneofthemost famousofthosemalevocalistswasOtisRedding,oneofwhose biggesthitswasSittingOnTheDockOfTheBay;[4]thatsongalso containsthesameI?IIIdepartureasYesWeCan,theObamacam‐ paignsong;[5]Obama’spresidencymarksanothermajorpositive changeinUScivilrights. ELO’sJungle(1979),mentionedbyAllanMoore,runsatthesame tempoasYesWeCan(q=100).Itsfirstthreerelativechordchanges areidenticaltothoseoftheObamasong:D F# Bm G(Jungle,inD)= I-III-vi-IV = G- B-Em-C(YesWeCan,inG).‘Bingo!’,youmight thinkand,indeed,youseemtohavea100%match.Butthereare problemsbecausethisperfectmatchdoesn’tsoundmuchlikethe YesWeCanchords.Thereareatleastfourmainreasonsforthemis‐ match.[1]theELOchordsaren’tusedasaloop;[2]theELOse‐ quencecontinuesintoarepeatedV?Icadence(A?D);[3]thefour chordscovertwo,notfour,barsandarespaced|h. q|h. q|with onlyonenoteforeachchord,notafullbarofiq q iq q,orq q iq q,oranyothersimilarpatternforeverychord;[4]theinstrumenta‐ tionistotallydifferent,filledwith’world‐musicky’tropicalinstru‐ mentsassociable,atleastinanurban,non‐tropical,‘firstworld’ musicculture,withthesongtitle(Jungle).Ihearinstrumentsre‐ semblingagogo,güiro,cowbell,woodblock,maracas,plus—out‐ sidethatfield(orjungle)ofconnotation—averyaudiblethick stringpad.AllthesedifferencesmakemereluctanttousetheELO chords,despitetheirunmistakablesimilarityintermsofconven‐ tionalharmonictheory,tothoseoftheObamasong,asIOCMfor YesWeCan.Thetwopiecesjustdon’tsoundverysimilar. Similar reasoning, but for different reasons of difference, can be
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appliedtoJohnLennon’sWomanIsTheNiggerOfTheWorld(1975). ApartfromthefactthattheLennonsequenceisnotaloopbutpart of an eight‐bar chorus sequence (I-III-vi-I-IV-iv-I-I in E), the Lennonsong’sbeatisswung(12/8feel),theoverallvolumeeffect muchlouder,thevocalregisterhigherandtimbreharsherthanYes We Can´s. There are also radical instrumentation differences be‐ tween the two, the Lennon piece including a percussive piano track,electricguitarandbass,up‐frontwailingsaxandlouddrum‐ kitevents.Noneofthesefeaturesareanywheretobeheardinthe Obamasong. OnlytwopiecesofI?IIIIOCMarelefttodiscuss,theLennon/Mc‐ CartneysongAWorldWithoutLove(Peter&Gordon,1964)andRa‐ diohead’sCreep(1992). From1964untilrecentlyIlabouredunderthemisapprehension thatthefirstfourbarsofeachverseinAWorldWithoutLovewere settothechordsE|G#|C#m|A(I-III-vi-IV),i.e.tothesamerel‐ ativeprogressionastheYesWeCanchordloop.Thesequencein factrunsE|G#|C#m|C#m.Ihadevenplayeditwronglymany timeswithoutanylistenerorfellowmusicianevercomplaining, probablybecausetheonlymelodynoteinthefourthbar,ac#, soundsjustasgoodoverAasC#m.Thepointofthisanecdoteisto suggestonceagainthatanexactharmonicmatchisnotnecessarily themostimportantfactordeterminingwhetherachordsequence inonepiecesoundslikeachordsequenceinanother.Inthiscon‐ textitmeansthatthemostimportantharmoniclikenessbetweenA WorldWithoutLoveandYesWeCanisthefactthattheybothshare thecommondeparturechangesI?III?vi.Now,theLennon‐Mc‐ CartneysequencesoundsdifferenttoYesWeCan’smainlybecause: [1]theformerrunsatafasterpace(q=134);[2]theaccompaniment isdominatedbyMcCartney’sheavy q. e q. e‘one‐fiveoompah’ bassfigures;25[3]itsI-III-viisnotrepeatedasaloop.Thatsaid, theI‐III‐vi‐viinWorldWithoutLovedoesoccurregularlyatthestart ofeachverseinstraight4/4,withonechordperbarandwithsim‐ plystrummedacousticguitaraccompaniment,howeverlowinthe
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mixitmaybe.Moreover,WorldWithoutLove’sharmoniccontinua‐ tionI - iv - I - I - ii - V - I (E |Am |E |E |F#m |B |E)stayswithinthe YesWeCanidiomofcommontriadsinrootposition,whilethesim‐ plepopinstrumentationhasmuchmoreincommonwithYesWe CanthandoELO’sJungle,Lennon’sWomanIsTheNigger,notto mentionTheCharleston,BessieSmith’sWhenYou’reDownAndOut, etc.26LikeDockOfTheBay,theI?IIIinWorldWithoutLovedoes sharesomestructuraltraitsincommonwithYesWeCan.However, unlikeDockOfTheBay,thePeter&Gordonrecordingcontainsno elementsofsoulorgospeltopointlistenerstowardanykindof civilrightsconnotations.Ifthatisso,whatsortofparamusical messagedoesWorldWithoutLovecontain? [v.1,v.3]Pleaselockmeawayanddon’tallowthedayhereinside whereIhidewithmyloneliness.Idon’tcarewhattheysayIwon’t stayinaworldwithoutlove.[v.2]Birdssingoutoftuneandrain cloudshidethemoon.I’mOK,hereI’llstaywithmyloneliness.I don’t care what they say I won’t stay in a world without love. [bridge]HereIwaitandinawhileIwillseemyloversmile.She maycome,Iknownotwhen.WhenshedoesIlose,sobabyuntil then.
Atfirstsightthemusingsofthislovesickyoungmanhavenothing incommonwiththestruggle,hopeandcommonalityfoundinthe keyphrasesfromObamaspeechesthatoccurthroughoutYesWe Can.Thatsaid,youonlyneedscratchalittlebelowthesurfaceof 25. By‘one‐fiveoompah’Imeanthatforeachchordthebasspartplaysfirstthe rootoftheoverlyingchord,thenthefifthinrelationtothatnote,e.g.ethenb forE,g#thend#forG#,thenc#andg#forC#mandsoon.Theordermay sometimesbereversedonV,e.g.f#thenbforaBchord(V)inthekeyofE(I). 26. ThechordsequenceforthetwelvebarsoftheverseinAWorldWithoutLove runs {E|G#|C#m|C#m|E|Am|E|E|F#m|B|E||1CBturnaround |2Eintomiddle8 oratend|.Thesong’sinstrumentationconsistsof:[1]McCartney’sheavydotted one‐fiveoompahs;[2]simpleanddiscretedrumkitwork;[3]simpleguitar strumming;[4]aVoxorganplayingvirtuallyinaudiblepadsplusthetuneof theversebywayofaninstrumentalbreak.Thevocallineissungsimplyand melodicallybyyoungmales.
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theLennon/McCartneylyricstofindoneparallel:anemotional process,expressedinsimpleterms,fromrelativedespairand darknesstorelativehopeandlight,allwithsomesenseofdetermi‐ nation. ThesequenceinRadiohead’sCreepruns{I?III?IV?iv} (G |B |C |Cm)asaloopat q=92throughouttheentirefour‐minutesong. Eachloopcoversfourbars,withonechordperbarrhythmicisedin straightcrotchetsorquaversinthedrumkitandguitarparts(iiiq inhi‐hat),andwithsimpleq. eeq epatternsonbass.Takenasac‐ companimentalmotionintoto,thesepartsareevenmoresimilar thanthoseofDockoftheBaytothesimple iq qpatternsofYesWe Can’sacousticguitar.TheyarecertainlymuchclosertotheObama songthanareELO’s|h. q|,orDownandOut’sorWomanIsTheNig‐ ger’sswung|q eq e|orWho’sSorryNow’s|iiq iiq|;and,asjust stated,theyare,likeYesWeCan,loopedoverthesameperiodof four4/4bars.Moreover,theRadioheadloop’sturnaroundchange fromCminorbacktoG(iv?I)isplagallikeYesWeCan’sandthe accompanimentalpatternsareallparagonsofano‐frillspop/rock style(simple,standarddrumandhi‐hatpatterns,simpleguitarar‐ peggiations,virtuallynoreverborothernoticeablesignaltreat‐ mentetc.).Creep’s BARE ESSENTIALSaesthetictallieswellwiththe NO‐FRILLScharacteroftheYesWeCanguitarsound. Now,noneofthesimilaritiesjustmentionedcandenythefactthat therearealsocleardifferencesbetweenCreepandYesWeCan,the mostobviousbeingRadiohead’suseofalienated,angryrockyell‐ ingandpowerfullyoverdrivenguitarduring39%oftherecord‐ ing.27Anotherimportantdifferenceisharmonic:whileYesWeCan repeatsI-III-vi-IV,theCreeplooprunsI-III-IV-iv.Thismeans thatalthoughtheturnaroundchangeinbothsongsisplagal,theIV chord(major)inCreepoccursonebarearlierintheplaceofYesWe Can’sEminor(vi)andthatthelatter’sCmajortriad(IV)isinthe 27. 39%ofthesong’s4:00=1:34.Theyellingandoverdriveoccursattwopointsin therecording:1:02‐1:24(22ʺ)and2:06‐3:08(1:02ʺ).
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samelooppositionasRadiohead’sCminor(iv).ThisCminor chord,withitse$enharmonicallycontrastedintermsofvoice‐ leadingdirectionalityagainsttheBmajorchord’sascendingd#, givestheCreeploopauniquecharacterthatmaycontributetothe song’ssenseofdramaticdespondency:28thed#goesupandoutto e8 butthee$repeatedlyreversesthatmovementbackdownand inwardstod8andG.YesWeCancontainsnodescendingchromat‐ icism. Nevertheless,despitethesecleardifferencesbetweenYesWeCan andCreep,thetwosongsdefinitelysharemoreincommonthan justtheinitialI-IIIchangeinafour‐chord,four‐barharmonicloop inG.Thequestionishowasongofangryself‐deprecationabout beingacreepandaweirdocanshareanythingmusicallysignifi‐ cantwithoneaffirmingthehopefulcollectivebeliefofYesWeCan. Onereasonmaybecontainedinthesortofnotion,hintedatby otherIASPMites,thattheI-IIIchangehasastrong GOING SOME‐ WHEREELSEvalue,thekindofUPANDOUTfoundintheascending I-III-vi(bass)and (innerpart )movementalready mentioned,andthatthis UP AND OUT GOING SOMEWHERE ELSEis justasessentialtoexpressingconfidenceinovercomingdifficulties —‘yeswecan’—asitistobawlingoutdisgustatwhateveritisthat bringsaboutself‐disgust.TheYesWeCanchordloopdoesnothave thechromaticslidebackdownofCreep,norisitsI-IIIchangefol‐ lowedbyDockOfTheBay’sseconddirectionallyequivocalIV-ii(C‐ A)change:ithasnoneoftheto‐and‐froeffectofthatsong’sdouble shuttle.Infact,togainmoreinsightintothemeaningoftheYesWe 28. CreepiscertainlyuniquetotheextentthatIknowofknowothersongbased ontheloopedsequence I-III-IV-iv.IbasetheDRAMATICDESPONDENCYinter‐ pretationnotsomuchonthesong’slyrics,thoughtheycontainplentyof dramaanddespondency,asonthesortofdescriptionsmusicanalysisstu‐ dentsprovide,commonresponsesbeingALIENATED,ANGRY,HOPELESS,DESPAIR, CYNICAL,etc.TryreplacingtheCmchordwithDorDmorF.Ifyouregister moreorthesameamountofDESPONDENCYwiththosealternativestoCminor, wemayhavedifferentmusicalbackgroundsandIapologiseforgeneralising onthebasisofmyownandonmystudents’experience.
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Canchordswewillneedtoexaminecomparisonmaterialfeaturing theothertwochordsintheObamasong’schordloop:viandIV.To bemoreprecise,weneedtofindIOCMfeaturingfour‐chordloops runningI‐x- vi - IV,wherexisanalternativetoIIIasaninter‐ mediarychordbetweenIandvi.Themostcommonxchordwill ofcoursebeiiiorV(inGmajor:BmorD).
I - iii - vi - IV ThefirstfourchordsofWhatBecomesoftheBrokenhearted?(Ruffin 1966)runB$ Dm Gm E$ or, in relative terms, I?iii?vi?IV, i.e. exactly what we are looking for. Unfortunately, this is not the IOCM jackpot we wanted because the chord sequence actually goes B f Dmf Gm E g(Is?iiiq?vi?IVq):threeoutofthefourtriadsarein‐ verted.True,thereisnoconjunctbasslinespanningafourthor moreinthissequenceasinAWhiterShadeOfPale(ProcolHarum 1967a)orClapton’sBell‐BottomBlues(DerekandtheDominoes, 1970),butthetriadinversionsandthepedal‐pointcharacterofthe Ruffinsong’sbasspartmakeforapartlystaticharmoniceffectthat isnotreleasedintosubstantialmovementuntillaterinthepiece. Moreover,likeClapton’sBell‐BottomBlues(1970a),Brokenhearted’s initialsequenceisnotloopedanditscontinuationcontainsharmo‐ niesincompatiblewiththeconsistentstraightroot‐positionchords ofYesWeCan.29Ontopofallthat,theMotowntuneisorchestrated quitedifferently,withpiano,strings,backingvocalsandpercus‐ sionallinclearevidence.Perhapstheiiiqin4/4atq=100andthe malevocaltimbresimilartothatheardat0:31intheObamapiece cancounteractsomeofthedifferencesjustmentioned.Ifso,even‐ tualinterobjectivelinksbetweenYesWeCanandBrokenheartedare unlikelytoberelatedtoaudibleharmonicresemblance. HarmonicincipitsrunningI-iiiinrootpositionarenotuncommon inothertypesofanglophonepopmusic.ForexamplePuffThe MagicDragon(Peter,Paul&Mary,1963),TheWeight(TheBand 29. Apartfromothertriadinversions,BrokenheartedcontainsanEdimandfeatures boldswitchestoCmajor/AminorandbacktoB$major/Gminor.
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1968)andDanielAndTheSacredHarp(1970)allstartI-iii-IV,while Sukyaki(Sakomoto1963)30andHastaMañana(Abba,1974b)both featureaI-iii-viprogression.LaterchangesfromIviaiiitoIVor vialsooccurinHangman(Peter,PaulandMary,1965)aswellasat prominentplacesinBobDylan’sIt’sAllOverNowBabyBlue(1965: I-iii-IV)andIPityThePoorImmigrant(1968:I-iii-vi).31Exceptfor SukiyakiandHastaMañana,thesesongsallbelongtotheUSfolk andfolkrockrepertoires.Moreover,Hangman,thetwoBandtracks andthetwoDylantunesfeaturelyricsdivergingfromthenormal popfareoflove,funandteenageangstorantics.Onlyoneofthe songs,TheWeight,usesarepeatedchordloop,I-iii-IV-Iatq=124in regular4/4withonechordchangeperbar.LikeHangman,thelyr‐ icsofTheWeighttellastorythatcontrastsnegativeandpositiveex‐ periences,whiletheI-iii-viofDylan’sImmigrantaccompaniesthe twisttowardsjusticeattheendofeachverse.32Ontheotherhand, althoughallthesesongsfeaturesimplystrummedguitaroverIiii-IVorI-iii-vi progressionswithallchordsinrootposition,just oneofthem(TheWeight)featuresachordloop,andonlythenasa three‐ratherthanfour‐chordunit.Moreover,noneofthesongsrun I-iii-vi-IVwhichwouldhavebeentheclosestvarianttoYesWe Can’sI-III-vi-IV.Inshort,eveniftheremaybesomesimilarities andsomepossiblereferencestoUS‐Americanfolkandfolkrock songswithseriouslyrics,wereallyneedtolookelsewherefor moreconvincingharmonicresemblance. 30. InfactSukiyakistartswithaplagalshuttle(I‐IV‐IinG)beforeharmonically departingintoitsI-iii-vi-Vatbar5intheverse. 31. Theiii‐IVchangeinBabyBlueoccurstowardstheendofeachverse(at‘Look out,thesaintsarecomingthrough’inverse1).Theiii-virecursjustbeforethe finalrallentandoattheendofeachverseofIPityThePoorImmigrant(withJoan BaezfromAHardRainconcert,1976). 32. ThestorytellinglyricsofHangman,TheWeightandDylan’sImmigrantalso occurinanotherwell‐knownsongusingaI-iii[-vi]departureinandante tempo:TheBeatles’ADayInTheLife(1967b:‘Ireadthenewstoday’,‘Acrowd ofpeoplestoodandstared’,etc.).Withoutconsciousawarenessofthisconnec‐ tion,IalsousedI-iii[-IV]forsimilarnarrativepurposesinRevolutionensvagga (RödaKapellet,1974).
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I - V - vi - IV ThesecondofourtwoalternativestoIIIinlinkingItovi(be‐ tweenGandEminYesWeCan)isV(DinG).Thesimpleharmonic pointhereisthatVistherelativemajorofiii,thekey‐specifictriad ontherootofthemajorscale’sthirddegree,andthat,likeiiorIII, Vcontainstwonotesadjacenttothetargettriadofvi.33Thissec‐ ond‐chordalternativechangestheloopfromI-III-vi-IV(YesWe Can)toI-V-vi-IV.Now,thatsequencesoundsquitesimilartothe startofPachelbel’sCanon—{I V |vi iii |IV I |IV V }—,ahar‐ monicpatternthatseemstohaveacquiredwidespreadcurrencyin English‐languagepopmusic.34Thatchordprogressionconstitutes theentireharmonicbasisofLiverpoolbandTheFarm’sAllTogether Now(1990)withitstempoof q=108in4/4anditsrateofharmonic changeatonechordperbar.35Morespecifically,theI-V-vi-IVse‐ quence,alsoin4/4andwithonechordperbar,canbeheardatthe startofeachverseinTheBeatles’LetItBe(1970: q=76|C|G|Am |F)aswellas,withtwochordsperbar,intheharmonicloop{I Vq|vi IV }undermostofBobMarley’sNoWomanNoCry(1974: q=78{C Gq | Am F}).ThesameI-V-vi-IValsoaccompaniesthe chorushooklineofJohnDenver’sCountryRoads(1971:q=80|D|A |Bm|G)andofTheDixieChicks’NotReadyToMakeNice(2006: q=86 G|D|Em|C ).36Ofcourse,thesamechordsequencecan occurinboisterousrocktuneslikeWe’reNotGoingToTakeIt (TwistedSister,1984: q=144)orAnotherGirlAnotherPlanet(The OnlyOnes,1978:q=156)butthetempo,rhythmisation,instrumen‐ 33. Thedandf#oftheDchordinGmajorarebothadjacenttotherootofEminor. 34. Forahilariouspot‐pourriofPachelbel’sCanontunes,seeParavonian(2006). 35. Itisworthnotingthatthesongappearsonthe‘albumSpartacus,andissaidto link…thebandʹsfavouritethemes[of]socialism,brotherhoodandfootball’ (Wikipediaarticle‘AllTogetherNow’[090317]). 36. Returningforthelasttimetotherepertoireoftheleft‐wingpoliticalrockband ofwhichIwasamemberfrom1972to1976,itmaybeworthaddingthatwe usedaI-V-vi-IVloopinG(GDEmC)toaccompanythemainstorytelling sectionsoftheten‐minutemontageLärling(RödaKapellet,1976).Thelyrics areaboutroughdealsforindustrialapprenticesandthedeterminationto changethingsforthebetter.
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tationandvocaldeliveryofthesetwotunesisafarcryfromtherel‐ ativelystatelypaceandrelativelyordered, NO FRILLSaestheticof theYesWeCanchords.37Indeed,theObamasong’schordsequence usesatempoandarateofdeliverythathasmuchmoreincommon withtheextremelypopularsongsmentionedearlier.Butthatisnot thewholestory.AllTogetherNow,LetItBe,NoWomanNoCry,Coun‐ tryRoadsandNotReadyToMakeNiceallhaveananthemiccharac‐ ter.Theyareeminentlysingableandallfeaturelyricsexpressing hopeorencouragementinthefaceoftroubleandhardship.True, thelyricsofCountryRoadsmentiononlybrieflyaslightregret—‘I getafeelingIshouldhavebeenhomeyesterday’—butalltheoth‐ ersclearlypresent,asTable39shows,experiencesofbothhardship andhope(Table39). Table39 KeyOVERCOMINGHARDSHIPphrasesinthelyricsofanthemicpop tunesfeaturingtheI-V-vi-IVvariantoftheYesWeCanchords. Tune
Troubles
Hope, encouragement, determination
TheFarm:All TogetherNow (1990)
…‘forefathersdied,lostin millionsforacountryʹs pride’;‘Allthosetearsshedin vain;Nothinglearntand nothinggained’.
…‘theystoppedfightingand theywereone’;‘hope remains’;‘Stoptheslaughter, letʹsgohome’;…‘joined together’;‘Alltogethernow’.
37. Journey’sDon’tStopBelieving(1981)runsatamoremoderatepace(q=122) thantheTwistedSisterandOnlyOnestracks,andrepeatstheI-V-vi-IVloop duringtheverses.Still,withitsfour‐squareamplifiedpianocrotchetsand pseudo‐classicalsemiquaverarpeggiosonelectricguitar,itisinstrumentally verydifferenttoYesWeCan.Evenso,thesonghassomeanthemicvaluewith lyricstellingsomeonenottogiveup(‘Don’tstopbelieving’).Another anthemicrockI-V-vi-IVexampleinGisLynyrdSkynyrd’sFreeBird(1973, q=120).However,thatsequenceispartofan8‐bar{I|V|vi|vi ?IV|IV|V|V} periodwithIVinbar5asthestartofasecondphrase.Moreapposite,quite anthemicandpoliticallyprogressiveisiconicSwedishprogbandHoolaBan‐ doola’sManmåstevetavadmanönskarsig(1972 D|A|Bm|G ;q=120).Still, liketheRödaKapelletreferences(footnotes9,32,36),evenifstylistically rootedintheAnglo‐Americanpop/rocktradition,Hoola’slyricsareinSwed‐ ish,notEnglish.
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Hope, encouragement, determination
Tune
Troubles
Beatles:LetIt Be (1970)
‘timesoftrouble’; ‘thebrokenheartedpeople’; ‘thenightiscloudy’.
‘MotherMarycomestome’; ‘wordsofwisdom’;‘Therewill beananswer’;‘Stillachance’; ‘Alightthatshinesonme’.
BobMarley: NoWomanNo Cry (1974/5)
‘Thegovernmentyardin Trenchtown’;‘observingthe hypocrites’;‘goodfriends we’velost’.
‘Nowomannocry’;‘dryyour tears’;‘I’llsharewithyou’; ‘gottopushonthrough’.
DixieChicks: NotReadyTo MakeNice (2006)
‘I’vepaidapriceandI’llkeep paying’;‘toolatetomakeit right’;‘sad,sadstory’;‘my lifewillbeover’.
‘I’mthroughwithdoubt’;‘I’m notreadytobackdown’;[I won’t]‘dowhat…youthinkI should’.
TheYesWeCanvideo’s‘Yeswecan’encapsulatesthekindofsenti‐ ments listed in the HOPE, ENCOURAGEMENT, DETERMINATION col‐ umnof Table 39. TheObama song’s TROUBLEScolumn would be filledwithquoteslike‘slavesandabolitionists’,‘immigrants[brav‐ ingthe]unforgivingwilderness’,‘workers[whohadto]organise’, ‘women[whohadto]reachfortheballots’,‘obstacles[that]stand inourway’,the‘chorusofcynicswhogrowlouderandmoredis‐ sonant’,and‘thelittlegirlwhogoestoacrumblingschoolinDil‐ lon’.Apartfromtheall‐encompassingslogan‘Yeswecan’,column threewouldcontain‘theyblazedatrail’,‘Kingwhotookustothe mountain‐topandpointedthewaytothePromisedLand’,‘oppor‐ tunityandprosperity’,‘healthisnation’,‘repairthisworld’,‘there hasneverbeenanythingfalseabouthope’,etc. AlthoughnoneofthefoursongsmentionedinTable39feature simplystrummedsix‐stringguitaraccompaniment,theyall,like YesWeCan,moveatasteadypacewithonechordper4/4barin four‐barperiods.Twoofthem(NoWomanNoCryandNotReadyTo MakeNice)repeattheI‐V‐vi‐IVsequenceatleasttwiceinsucces‐ sion,whilethelyricsofallsongs,plusYesWeCan,juxtaposeexpe‐ riencesofhardshipandofhope.
476
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IOCMincombination It would have been very surprising if there had been one single pieceofothermusiccontainingexactlythesamechordloopasYes WeCan’splayedatasimilartempoinasimilarwayonthesame sortofinstrumentinthesamekeyandsamemetre.Ontheother hand,theIOCMpresentedaboveshowshowarangeofdifferent elementsfoundinrelevantEnglish‐languagepopmusictraditions areincorporatedintheYesWeCanchordsequence.Itshouldalso beclearthatthosespecificstructuralelementsareoftenassociated in those traditions with notions, attitudes, emotions, activities, events and processes that together build a reasonably coherent connotative semantic field. The most important structural traits andtheirmainparamusicalfieldsofconnotation(abbr.PMFC)are radicallysummarisedinTable40(p.477). Inshort,thereisgoodreasontobelievethattheYesWeCanchords, bydrawingonspecificEnglish‐languagepopularmusictraditions, contributetotheconnotationofthesortofencouragement,affir‐ mation,empowermentanddemocraticparticipationthatseemto bepartoftheObamaethosandagenda.Particularlystrikingisthe juxtapositionofhardshipandhopefoundintheI-V-vi-IVIOCM (Table39,p.474)correspondingtotheObamaspeechquotesabout slaves,abolitionists,immigrants,workers,womenandtheirdeter‐ minationtoovercomevariousformsinjustice.Zoominginona muchmorerecentandspecificexample,itisworthaddingthat TheDixieChicksusedtheI-V-vi-IVvariantoftheYesWeCan chordlooptoaccompanytheirdeterminationtodefypersonal threatsresultingfromtheband’sshameoverthefactthatthepre‐ vious president hailed fromtheirhome state of Texas. 38 In Obama’swords,itwastimeforachangeand,indeed,inDylan’s 38. ThecompletestoryoftheShepherd’sBush(London)incidentin2003,when singerNatalieMainesexpressedthatshame,anditsconsequencesforthose threebraveyoungfemalemusiciansfromTexasistoldinthemovingdocu‐ mentaryShutUpandSing(CeciliaPeck,BarbaraKopple;CabinCreekFilms/ Weinstein,2006).
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477
words,thetimestheymightchangeforreal. Table40 GeneralsummaryofYesWeCan’sharmonicIOCManditsPM‐ FCs. General structural traits (all 4/4 moderato)
Genre[s] (anglophone)
Connotations (PMFC)
Gmajorandothereasy chordsonacoustic metal‐6‐stringguitar
folk‐related
easytoplay,participatory, democratic,progressivepolitics, ‘yeswecan’
I - III
pop
upandout,possibleproblems
I - iii - vi
folk,folkrock, countryrock
storytelling,ofthepeople
IV - I
gospel,soul, rock
anglophonepop,affirmative, determined,participatory(‘Amen’)
I - V - vi - IV
pop,rock
fromhardshiptoencouragement, determinationandhope;anthemic, participatory,progressivepolitics
Ofcourse,althoughthischapteralreadycontainswellover8,000 words,thereismuchmoretobesaidaboutthemusicoftheObama electionvideoanditsconnotations.Itmightforexamplebeargued thattheanthemiccharacteroftheI-V-vi-IVIOCMisofminorrel‐ evancetoYesWeCananditsmainlyspokenlyrics.Butsuchanar‐ gumentmissesatleastoneimportantpoint:thatrecordingscon‐ sistingofone‐linephrasespresentedasastringofstatementsby oneartistafteranotherhasexistedasarecognisedpopsongform sinceatleastBandAid’sDoTheyKnowIt’sChristmas?(1984)and thatsongsinthatform—thecharitystringalong,asIcallit—invar‐ iablyinvolveacalltoactionforajustcause.39Thissingingorde‐ claimingconsecutivelyratherthansimultaneouslyissimplyan‐ otherwayofmusicallypresentingasenseofcommunitycompared 39. Forexample,ArtistsUnitedAgainstApartheid(1985),Svenskrockmotapart‐ heid(1985),USAforAfrica(1985),Hear’nAid(1986),DiscoAid(1986).For definition,etymologyandexplanationofthetermcharitystringalong,seeGlos‐ sary,p.481.
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toahymnoranthem.YesWeCancombines,sotospeak,thehar‐ monicuniverseoftheprogressiveSingOut!community40withthe communityofacharitystringalongforahumanitariancause.The YesWeCanchordsalsorefertootherpopularanglophonemusic traditionslikefour‐man‐bandrock(e.g.Beatles,earlyRadiohead), country‐andfolk‐rock(e.g.TheBand),andsoul(OtisRedding). Moreover,YesWeCanaddsrapandAfrican‐Americanpreaching tothatmixtureofstyles,fusingthemallintoonesingleproduc‐ tion.ThatfusioncertainlyseemstoalignwithObama’sgoalsof unificationandcollaboration.However,alltheseissues—themu‐ sicallyinclusiveexpressionofcommunity,theroleofrapand preachinginYesWeCan,andtheirrelationtothepoliticalcontext inwhichthevideowasproducedandused—arealltopicsregret‐ tablybeyondthescopeofthisbook.
40. AmongSingOut!magazine’sfounderswerePeteSeeger,WoodyGuthrie,Paul Robeson,AlanLomaxandIrwinSilber.Foradescriptionandhistoryofthe magazine,see|singout.org/sohistry.html|[090318].
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479
FFBkGlossary.fm.2014‐08‐02,01:53INCOMPLETE!!! FFBkGlossary.fm. 2014-08-02, 01:53
Glossary 8or8Vn.mus.abbr.octave;8vb=octavabassa(oneoctavelower thanwritten);15mb=quintesimabassa(twooctaveslower). A.n.mus.abbr.alto(voice). AC.adj.abbr.acoustic. A CAPPELLA[
]adv.mus.[1]usualsense:voice[s]onlywith‐ outinstrumentalaccompaniment;etym.It. CAPPELLA =chapel, choir,i.e.inthemannerofachapelchoir;[2]specialistusage: voice[s]accompaniedbyonlychurchorgan. ADSR ENVELOPE. AEOLIANadj.heptatonicdiatonicmodeequivalenttothe‘natural minor’or‘descendingmelodicminor’ofeuroclassicalmusicthe‐ ory.It’sthe‘CHURCH’MODEwhich,withaastonic,runsfromatoa onthewhitenotesofapianokeyboard.Itssevenascendingtone (1)andsemitone(½)stepsare1½11½11anditsscaledegrees1 2$345$6$7. AESTHESIC adj.(fromFr.esthésique,MolinoviaNattiez); relatingtotheaesthesis[ ](α‡σθησις=perception/sensation) ofmusicratherthantoitsproductionorconstruction;cf.POÏETIC. A.K.A.abbr.alsoknownas,alias. ALEATORIC[
]adj.basedonelementsofchance;n. ALEA‐
TORICS.
ACCIDENTALn.asignusedinmusicalnotation,usuallyasharp( ), flat($)ornatural(8)sign,indicatingthatthenoteitimmediately precedesdoesnotbelongtothestandardtonalvocabularyofthe pieceorsectioninwhichitoccursandthatthenoteinquestionhas beenraisedorloweredbyasemitone(seealsoENHARMONIC). A.K.A.abbr.alsoknownas,alias. ANACRUSISn.averyshortmusicaleventhavingthecharacterofan upbeatorpickup,i.e.arhythmicfigureand/orshorttonalprocess propellingthemusicintowhateveritimmediatelyprecedes;adj.
480
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ANACRUSTIC;etym.Gk.ἀνάκρουσις.
ANAPHORAn.rhetoricaldevicebywhichsuccessivesentencesstart
identicallybutenddifferently,asinMartinLutherKing’s‘Ihavea dream’speech;transferredtomusic,amelodicanaphorameansthat successive phrases start with the same motif but end differently, whileaharmonicanaphorameansthatsuccessivechordsequences startwiththesamechange[s]butenddifferently.Anaphoraisthe oppositeofEPISTROPHE(seepp.199,451). ANHEMITONICadj.(usuallyofmodesorscales)containingnosemi‐
tonestep;seePENTATONIC. ***ANTITONICtbwu ARR.abbr.,arranger,arrangement,arrangedby.
AVEMARIA CHORDn.neol.(1989);asubdominant6‐5chordwith fifthinbassheldoverassecondchordinaphrasefromaninitial majortonicroot.Etym.theDm7(orF6)withc inthebassthatcomes assecondchordinJ.S.Bach’sPreludeNº1inCMajor(Wohltemper‐ iertes,vol.1)andwhichwasusedbyGounodforhissettingofAve Maria;alsothesecondchord(resolved)inMozart’sAveverumcor‐ pus. B.n.,adj.,mus.abbr.bass(voice); DBS,BSGT. B&Habbr.BooseyandHawkes(musicpublishers,London) LABAMBA LOOPn.neol.(c.1983) CHORD LOOPrunning I‐IV‐V , asinLaBamba(Valens,1958),theIONIAN(major‐key)equivalentof theCHEGUEVARALOOP. BIMODALITYn.(Vega,1944)typeoftonalityinwhichtwodifferent
modes,andthereforetwodifferenttonics,canbeheardeithersi‐ multaneouslyorinsuccessiononeaftertheother(seeChapter14). BIMODAL REVERSIBILITYn.neol.(2009)traitwherebyamelodicor
harmonicsequenceinonemodebecomes,whenreversed,ase‐ quenceinanothermode(seep.445). BLUESPENTATONIC BRIT.adj.abbr.British
pp.162‐167.
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481
BS.n.,adj.mus.bass. BSGT.orBS.GTR.n.abbr.mus.bassguitar. BSN.n.,mus.,abbr.bassoon.
C20FOXabbr.TwentiethCenturyFox(USmediacorporation). CF.abbr.Lat.‘confer’=compare,oftenwithsomethingdifferent.
CH4abbr.Channel4TV(UK) CHARITY STRINGALONGn.neol.(2009)recordingmadeforahu‐
manitariancauseinwhichindividualartistssingordeclaimsingle phrasesinsuccessionandonlyjointogetherinconcertorunison forthechorusorhookline,e.g.DoTheyKnowIt’sChristmas?and WeAreTheWorld;etym.STRINGinthesenseof‘astringorline[suc‐ cession]ofpersonsorthings’and SINGALONG,meaning‘commu‐ nitysinging’oratunetowhichanyonecansingalongatthesame time,usuallyinunisonratherthaninsuccession(OxfordConcise Dictionary,1995). CHARLESTON DEPARTUREn.neol.(2000)chordsequencestartingI‐
IIIlikeTheCharleston(Mack&Johnson,1923: B$ D7 G7,etc.),Has AnybodySeenMyGal?(Henderson,1925)andotherold‐timejazz hits. CHEGUEVARA LOOPn.neol.(2008); CHORD LOOPrunning i‐iv‐ V ,asinComandanteCheGuevara(Puebla,1965;ex.290,p.442).It’s theaeolian/harmonicminorequivalentoftheLaBAMBALOOP. CHORD LOOPn.neol.(2009)shortrepeatedsequenceof(almostal‐
ways)threeorfourchords.Chordloopsareindicatedbya180°ar‐ rowateachend.ThefamiliarVAMPloop,forexample,runs{I-viii-V}or{I-vi-IV-V}likethe{B-G#m-E-F#}inSamCooke’s WhatAWonderfulWorld(1960b)orthe{E$ Cm Fm B$}inBlue Moon(Rodgers,1934).Mostchordloopshavenonamebutsome aresocommonthatitsavestimeandspaceiftheyaregivenmne‐ moniclabelslike‘theLaBambaloop’({I-IV-V},e.g.{C-F-G})or ‘theCheGuevaraloop’({i-iv-V},e.g.{Am-Dm-E}),socalledbe‐ causeofitsuseinCarlosPuebla’sComandanteCheGuevara.Chord loopsarediscussedinChaptersand14.SeealsoCHORDSHUTTLE.
482
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CHORDSHUTTLEn.neol.(1993)oscillationbetweentwochords,for
exampletheto‐and‐frobetweentonicminor(i,B$m)andsubme‐ diantmajor($VI,G$)inChopin’sMarchefunèbre(1839),orDylan’s AllAlongTheWatchtower(1968:Am?F),a.k.a.‘aeolianpendulum’ (Björnberg1989);orbetweenii7andVinHe’sSoFine(Chiffons 1963),OhHappyDay(EdwinHawkins1969),orMySweetLord (Harrison1970).Chordshuttlesareindicatedbydoubleendedar‐ rows,e.g.i\$VI orB$m\G$forChopin’sfuneralmarch,andare discussedinChapter12;cf.CHORDLOOP. ‘CHURCH’ MODEn.,a.k.a. ECCLESIASTICAL MODE;oneofthesix mainHEPTATONICDIATONICmodeswhich,whenarrangedinscalar formwiththeinitialnoterepeatedattheoctave,contain,invary‐ ingpositions,twosemitoneandsixwhole‐tonesteps.Thesixmain ‘church’modesare:[1]IONIAN(c-conthewhitenotesofthepiano); [2] DORIAN(d-donthewhitenotes);[3] PHRYGIAN(e-e);[4] LYDIAN (f-f);[5]MIXOLYDIAN(g-g);[6]AEOLIAN(a-a);seepp.98‐116. CIT.MEM.abbr.citedfrommemory. CLT.n.mus.abbr.clarinet. CONSTRUCTIONALadj.,neol.(2001)SeePOÏETIC. CORn.mus.abbr.corno/corni,It.forFrenchhorn[s] COUNTERPOISEn.‘1aforceetc.equivalenttoanotherontheoppo‐ siteside.2acounterbalancingweight’(OxfordConciseEnglishDic‐ tionary,1995);adapted(2009)todenoteatonal(melodicand/or harmonic)‘complementarypole’tothetonic,typically(thoughnot exclusively)Vintheionianmode,$VIIorIVinthemixolydian anddorian,$VIorivintheaeolian,$IIor$viiinthephrygian,etc. Counterpoisehasbasicallythesamemeaningastheantitonicnotal‐ togetherunliketheNorthernIndianconceptofvadi( ‘king’ofthe melodiclineinrelationtomaindronenote,sa)or,perhaps,samvadi (the‘queen’).Thetonalrhythmgeneratedbyvaryingmetric/peri‐ odic/temporalplacementofchangebetweentonicandcounter‐ poiseisafactorofinterestinpre‐industrialpopularmusicfromthe BritishIsles(seeKICKBACKPOINT).
Tagg:EverydayTonalityII—Glossary
483
COWBOY HALF‐CADENCEn.,neol.(1987)progressionfrommajor
triadontheflatseventhtomajortriadonthedominant($VII-V), asinthemainthemesfromTheMagnificentSeven,Dallas,Blazing Saddles,etc. CRISISCHORDn.neol.(1991)chromaticallyembellishedchordcon‐ tainingatleastonediminishedoraugmentedintervalandoccur‐ ringwithinthestandardharmoniccontextoftheEuropeantertial idiom;mostfrequentlyoccurringasm6orm7$5,crisischordscan oftenbefoundabout75%ofthewaythroughanineteenth‐century parlourballad.
CUPabbr.CambridgeUniversityPress. DBS.n.mus.abbr.doublebass. DEPARTUREn.mus.whateveroccursasmusicleavesanestablished pointofreference(e.g.aninitialtonic);DEPARTURECHORD?OUTGO‐ INGCHORD.
DGGabbr.DeutscheGrammophonGesellschaft. DIATAXIS[
]n.mus.neol.(2011)long‐termarrangement/ disposition/orderofmusical EPISODESintermsofchronological placementandrelativeimportance;incontradistinctiontoSYNCRI‐ SIS (q.v.);etym.διάταξις=disposition,arrangement,orderof events,runningorder,orderofservice,etc.,asofprocessions, prayers,chants,biblereadings,sacraments,andother‘episodes’in ByzantineOrthodoxliturgy;adj. DIATACTICAL[ ]);de‐ riv.n.DIATAXEME[ ]identifiableelementofdiatactical meaning. DIATONICadj.conformingtothe HEPTATONICtonalvocabularyof anyoftheEuropean‘CHURCH MODES’inwhicheachconstituent noteisinEnglishnamedafteroneofthefirstsevenlettersoftheal‐ phabet,forexamplea b c d e f g(AEOLIANinA),d e f# g a b c#(IO‐ NIANinD),g a$ b$ c d e$ f(phrygianinG).Arrangedinscalarform, alldiatonicmodescontainfivewhole‐tone(1)andtwosemitone steps(½),e.g.c-d(1),d-e(1),e-f(½),f-g(1),g-a (1),a-b(1)andb-c (½)inC IONIAN.SemitonestepsinEuropeandiatonicmodesare separatedbyafifth(e.g.e-fandb-conthewhitenotesofapiano
484
Tagg:EverydayTonalityII—Glossary
keyboard). DOH‐HEXATONICadj.mus.ofthemajorhexatonicmodecontaining
noseventh(
);seep.173,ff.
DOH‐PENTATONICadj.mus.ofthepentatonicmodecontaininga
majorthirdandmajorsixth(
);seepp.159,163‐165.
DOO‐WOP.n.,primarilyvocalgenrewithoriginsinblackUSgospel ofthe1940sandinbarbershopquartetsinging.Originallysunga cappellaorwithsimplepercussion,doo‐wopbecamepartofUS‐ mainstreampopinthe1950sandearly1960s.Theterm’setymol‐ ogyisonomatopoeic(likefalalalainElizabethanmadrigals),de‐ rivingfromthestyle’suseofparalinguisticsyllablesvocalisingap‐ proximationsofinstrumentalaccompanimentpatterns,e.g.The Marcels’versionofBlueMoon(1961),BarryMann’sWhoPutThe Bomp(1961). DORIANadj.heptatonicdiatonic‘CHURCH’ MODEwhich,withdas tonic,runsfromdtodonthewhitenotesofapianokeyboard.Its sevenascendingtone(1)andsemitone(½)stepsare1½111½1 anditsscaledegrees12$345(8)6$7. DROMOS(δρόμος,pl.δρόμοι)n.modeorMAQAM;lit.=way,road. ECCLESIASTICALMODE,see‘CHURCHMODE’. ED.orEDS.abbr.editor[s],editedby. ELBS.n.abbr.mus.electricbass,bassguitar. ELGT.orEL.GTR.n.abbr.mus.electricguitar.
ENG.n.&adj.bbr.England,English. E NHARMONIC.Music‐theoreticaltermusedwhenreferringto noteshavingidenticalpitchinequal‐tonetuningbutwhichfor practicalreasons(seebelow)are‘spelt’differently.Enharmonic noteslookdifferentinsheetmusiceveniftheysoundexactlythe sameassinglenotesoutoftonalcontext.Forexample,thenote 4 (≈494hz)ismuchmorelikelytobewritten 4(≈494hz)inthekey ofB$minor,butitwillinevitablyappearas initsownkeyofB (Fig.72:1‐2).Similarly,theindividualnotepitch ,apartfrombe‐
Tagg:EverydayTonalityII—Glossary
485
ingitself(Fig.72:3),canalsobespelt (‘Fdoublesharp’)ifit’sin aG#minorcontext(Fig.72:4).Justasitwouldbemadtowrite ( )forasimple run‐upfrom to ,it’s equallyabsurdtowritethesame run‐upinG minor (from to as ° orasanythingotherthan . Fig.72.
Enharmonicspellingsandmisspellings
Enharmonicsaren’tjustamatterofformalcorrectness,even thoughseeing,say, (‘dsharp’)whenitshouldbe (‘Eflat’)is abitlikereading‘Ino’insteadof‘Iknow’.Enharmonicspellinghas moretodowithclarityandpracticalconvenience.Theideaistolet thenotationallyliteratemusicianknowabouttheimmediatetonal contextanddirectionofthelinebeingperformed,notleastifthe lineischromatic.Thatprincipleshouldbeclearenoughfromfig‐ ure73whichpresentsalltwelve12‐notechromaticscales,bothas‐ cendinganddescending.Thepitchesindescentare,inequal‐tone tuning,identicaltothoseinascentexceptthey’reinreverseorder andspeltquitedifferently.You’remuchmorelikelytofindsharps inascentbecausesharpsraisethenoteyou’recurrentlyon—they pointupwards—andmorelikelytofindflatsindescentbecause, byloweringthenoteyou’reon,theypointdownwards.
486
Tagg:EverydayTonalityII—Glossary
Fig.73. Enharmonicups&downs:12×12‐notechromaticscales(equal‐tone tuning)
Anotherprincipleofenharmonicsrelatestokey.Whileitisnotun‐ usualtohearorreadmusicinG minor,youwillalmostneversee anythinginG major:A$major,yes,butnotG .Thisenharmonic conventionisduetothefactthatwhilethekeysignatureofG mi‐ norcontainsonlyfoursharps,thekeyofG majorwould,ifitwere everused,haveakeysignaturecontainingeightaccidentals:seven sharpsplusonedouble‐sharp.D minor,ifitexisted,wouldhave thesameprobleminreverse:itskeysignaturewouldhavetoin‐ cludesevenflatsandonedouble‐flat.A andD major,onthe otherhand,arequitecommonkeyswiththeirfourandfiveflatsre‐
Tagg:EverydayTonalityII—Glossary
487
spectively(see‘keyclock’,p.260).Sincemakingmusicinkeysfea‐ turingsixorsevenaccidentals(F /G ,C andC majorplusD /E andA minor)canalreadybequiteachallenge,havingtothinkin keyswitheightornineaccidentalsisapointlesslydifficulttask. That’swhytheminorkeyswhosetonicisoneofthepianokey‐ board’sfiveblacknotesare:B ,E orD ,G ,C andF ,neverA , D orG andveryrarelyA .Similarly,whilecommonmajorkeys areB ,E$,A ,D andG orF ,youwillneverfindmajor‐keymu‐ sicinA ,D orG ,andonlyrarelyinC major.Ifyou’redealing withachromaticpassageintonicalmusic,it’salwaysadvisableto useaccidentalsbelongingtokeysignaturesclosesttothatofthe tonicinyourpassage. EPISTROPHE n.rhetoricaldevicebywhichsuccessivesentences
startdifferentlybutendsimilarly.Amelodicepistrophemeans thatsuccessivephrasesstartdifferentlybutendwiththesamemo‐ tif,whileaharmonicepistrophemeansthatsuccessivechordse‐ quencesstartdifferentlybutendwiththesamechange[s].Epistro‐ pheistheoppositeofANAPHORA(seep.199). EQUIDURATIONAL.adj.neol.(2000)ofequalduration,lastingforthe
sameamountoftime. EUROCLASSICALadj.mus.neol.(c.2009)belongingtoorhavingthe characteristicsofEuropeanclassicalmusic(a.k.a.‘artmusic’,or ‘WECT’[=WesternEuropeanClassicalTradition]),mosttypically thatcomposedbetweenc.1650andc.1910.Theprefix EUROisin‐ cludedtoavoidconfusionwithclassical(orart)musictraditions outsideEurope,e.g.theTunisiannouba,therāgatraditionsofIndia, Cambodiancourtmusic,theyăyuè( 雅乐 )ofimperialChina,etc. EX.abbr.musicexample.EXX.=examples. ETYMOPHONY
n.neol.,adj. ETYMOPHONIC[ ] (c.1990)origin[s]anddevelopmentofanon‐verbalsound’smean‐ ing;etym.transferfromETYMOLOGY(=thesourcesoftheformation ofawordandthedevelopmentofitsmeaning). EXTENDED PRESENTn.ph.(a.k.a. PRESENT‐TIME EXPERIENCE,or,mis‐ leadingly,‘SPECIOUSPRESENT’).Asadurationtheextendedpresent
488
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lastsnolongerthanamusicalphrase(exhalation),orafewfoot‐ steps,orashortgesturalpattern,orafewheartbeats.Itisadura‐ tionexperiencedasasingleunit(Gestalt)inpresenttime,as‘now’ ratherthanasanextendedsequenceofmusicalideas;seealso IN‐ TENSIONAL,SYNCRISIS).Theextendedpresentcanalsobeimagined asthehumanbrain’sequivalenttoacomputer’s RAMwhereinfor‐ mationisprocessedimmediately,ratherthanasitsharddrive (longer‐termmemory)whereaccessandretrievaltimesarelonger. Formore,seeTagg(2009:272‐3;417‐484). EXTENSIONALadj.(Chester,1970)relatingto‘horizontal’,syntacti‐ calaspectsofmusicalexpressionextendedoverlongerdurations; oppositeofINTENSIONAL. FL.n.mus.abbr.flute. FLAT SIDE .n.theleftsideofthe CIRCLE OF FIFTHSor KEY CLOCK
(p. 260),whereflatsareincludedintherelevantkeysignatures:F, B$,E$,A$,D$[G$]. FLATWARD[S]adv.andadj.proceedinganticlockwiseroundtheCIR‐ CLE OF FIFTHS(p. 260);oppositeof SHARPWARDS.Forexample,‘the
chordprogressionproceedsflatwardsviaDmandG7toC’(adver‐ bial);‘Am7 Dm7 G7 Cisaflatwardschordprogressionlandingon thetonic,C’(adjectival).Flatwardsmovementissocalledbecause thenumberofflatsinthemajor‐keysignatureoftherootnoteof successive chords in the progression increases or the number of sharpsdecreases.Forexample,intheprogressionFm - B$ - E$ (iiV-I),thenumberofflatsincreasesfrom1(F)via2(B$)to3(E$), while in the flatwards progression Dm - G7 - C the number of sharpsdecreasesfrom2(D)via1(G)to0(C).1 FR.abbr.n&adj.France,French. GOSPEL JAW[ 1.
]n.ph.mus.vocaltechniqueusedprima‐
InanalysisclassesattheUniversitédeMontréalItranslateflatsideaslecôté bémolorlecôtédesbémolsandflatwardsasverslesbémols.IfIhadstillbeen workinginSwedenIwouldhaveusedmollsidanforflatsideandmollriktatfor flatwards.
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489
rilybyfemalesingersinthegospelandsoulmusictraditiontosim‐ ulaterealvocalvibrato.Thesimulation,producedbywobblingthe jawrapidlyupanddown,isoftenappliedtowardstheendoflong notesbysuchartistsasWhitneyHouston. GROOVEn.mus.senseofgross‐motoricmovementproducedby
oneormoresimultaneouslysoundedrhythmpatternslasting,as singleunits,nolongerthanthe EXTENDED PRESENT,andrepeated throughoutamusical EPISODEor PIECE.Mostcommonlyusedin referencetotheperceptionofcontinuouspropulsioncreated,typ‐ icallyfordancing,bytheinteractionofmusiciansinaband’s rhythmsectionoritsaccompanyingparts,groovecanalsodenote othertypesofperceivedgross‐motoricmovement,asinwork songsandmarches. GT.orGTR.n.mus.abbr.guitar. HEPTATONICadj.(ofmodesorscales)containing,orhavingatonal vocabularyof,sevendifferentnoteswithintheoctave.Theoreti‐ callyaheptatonicmodecouldcontainc c# d d# e a$andb@,orany otherconceivablecombinationofdifferentnotes,butWesternmu‐ sic’sfamiliarheptatonicmodesallcontainanotebasedoneachof thefirstsevenlettersofthealphabet,e.g.a b c d e f g(AEOLIANhep‐ tatonicinA),d e f# g a b c#(IONIANheptatonicinD),g a$ b$ c d e$ f(PHRYGIANheptatonicinG);seealsoDIATONIC,PENTATONIC,HEXA‐ TONIC.
Table41.HeptatonicnotenamesinIndianandArabicmusictheory 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8=1
sol‐fa
doh
ré
mi
fa
sol
la
si
doh
Indian
Sa
Re
Ga
Ma
Pa
Dha
Ni
Sa
Arabic
Rast
Awj
Kirdan
…
Douka Jaharka Nawa Hussayni
HEXATONICadj.(ofmodesorscales)containingsixdifferenttones
withintheoctave;seepp.169‐178;cf.PENTATONIC,HEPTATONIC. H OCKET.FromFrenchhoquetandLatinhoquetus(=‘hiccup’), hocketdenotesamusicalperformancetechniqueinwhichindivid‐ ualnotesorchordswithinmusicalphrases,notentirephrases,are
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alternatedbetweendifferentvoices,instrumentsorrecorded tracks.Althoughthetermistraditionallyusedtodescribethetech‐ niqueinlatemedievalFrenchmotets(seeInseculum,1908),hock‐ etsarefarfromuncommoninmodernpopularmusic.Awell‐ knownexampleisthewomanshiftingtoandfrobetweenvoice andone‐notepanpipeintheintroductiontoHerbieHancock’s 1974versionof‘WatermelonMan’.Indeed,hocketsareapromi‐ nentfeatureofseveralAfricanmusiccultures,notonlyamongthe Ba‐Benzélé(1965)featuredontheHancockrecording,butalso amongtheMbuti,theBasarwa(Khoisan)andGogo(Tanzania) (Nketia,1974:167).Inamoregeneralsense,fastalternationofone ortwonotesbetweenvoices,instrumentsandtimbresnotonly contributesmassivelytothedynamicoftimbralandrhythmicdis‐ tinctnessthatisintrinsictothepolyphonicandpolyrhythmic structurationofmuchmusicinSubsaharanAfrica(Nketia,1974; Chernoff,1979):italsogivesevidenceof‘socialpartialityforrapid andcolourfulantiphonalinterchange’(Sanders,1980).Suchparti‐ alitymayalsohelpexplainthepredilectionforhocketingfoundin funkmusicwherethetechniqueisintentionallyemployedforpur‐ posesofzestfulaccentuationandinterjection.Typicalexamplesof funkhocketingarethequick,agogicinterplaybetweenhighand lowslapbassnotes,orthefastinterchangebetweenextremely shortvocalutterances,stabsfromthehornsectionandinterpunc‐ tuationsfromtherestoftheband(e.g.JamesBrown,LarryGra‐ ham;seeDavis,2005).Theseaffectivequalitiesofhocketingwere certainlyrecognisedbymedievalEuropeanclericswhocharacter‐ iseditaslascivius (= fun) propter sui mobiltatem et velocitatem.2In 1325,PopeJohnXXIIissuedabullbanningitsuseinchurch(Sand‐ ers,1980). Anothertypeofhocketinghasbeendevelopedinresponsetore‐ strictionsofinstrumenttechnology.ForexampletheAndeanprac‐ ticeofsharingthetonalvocabularyofapiecebetweentwoormore panpipes(zampoñas)andtheirplayersdemandsskillfulhocketing 2.
Itwasdeemedimproperandlascivius‘duetoitsmobilityandrapidity’.
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491
toproducerunsofnotesthatareinnowayintendedtosoundlike hiccups(seeMorricone,1989).Advancedhocketingisalsoprac‐ tisedinBalinesegamelanmusicwhereveryshortportionsofmel‐ odyareallocatedtomanydifferentplayerstoproducehighlycom‐ plexsoundpatterns. IASPMabbr.:InternationalAssociationfortheStudyofPopularMusic. INCOMING CHORD n. neol. (2009) last chord before the tonic in a three‐orfour‐CHORDLOOP(a.k.a.TURNAROUNDCHORD).Inathree‐ chordlooptheMEDIALandINCOMINGchordsareoftenidentical;see alsoOUTGOINGCHORDandMEDIALCHORD;forfullerexplanationsee pp.418‐420. INTENSIONAL adj. (Chester, 1970) relating to ‘vertical’ aspects of
musicalexpressionandtothelimitsoftheEXTENDEDPRESENT;op‐ positeofEXTENSIONAL. INTERVALCOUNTING[ENTERWEBREF000] IOCMabbr.,n.,neol.,mus.,semio(1979)InterObjectiveComparison Material,i.e.intertextualreference[s]consistingofmusicother thantheANALYSISOBJECTandwhichsoundslikeand/orisstructur‐ allysimilarto(partorpartsof)thatsameanalysisobject. IONIANISEv.mus.neol.(2007)tomakeionian,i.e.tochangecertain
scaledegreesinothermodessotheyconformtoeuroclassical principlesoftonalitylinkedtothattradition’sproclivityfortheio‐ nianmode,e.g.theharmonicminorandascendingmelodicminor modes(seepp.94‐96,ff.);n.IONIANISATION;adj.IONIANISED. IT.adj.&n.abbr.Italian,Italy. ITVabbr.IndependentTV(UK). LA‐HEXATONIC,adj.mus.ofthe‘sixthless’hexatonicmodecontain‐ ingscaledegrees ;seep.174,ff. LA‐PENTATONICadj.mus.oftheanhemitonicpentatonicmodecon‐
tainingscaledegrees
;seepp.160‐167.
LAT.adj.abbr.Latin. LEADING NOTEn.theseventhdegreeintheCentralEuropeanma‐
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jor,ascendingminorandharmonicminorscales,socalledbecause inthosemodesitisamajorseventh(#7)whichnormallyleadsinto thetoniconesemitonehigher.Leadingnotecan,byextension,des‐ ignate any note that leads by a semitone step, ascending or de‐ scending, into another note contained within the subsequent commontriad,e.g.thenotefinaG7chorddescendingtotheeina Cmajortonictriad.Itisworthnotingthataphrygiancadencefrom $II toIusesthreeleadingnotes:[1]fromminorsecondtotonic($2‐ 1,e.g.f@toeinEphrygian),fromperfectfourthtomajorthird(4‐ #3,e.g.atog#assumingthereisaPicardythirdonthetonicE,as inflamencomusic);[3]fromminorsixthtoperfectfifth($6‐5,e.g. ctobinEphrygian).Sincealarge,widelydisseminatedandinflu‐ entialbodyofpopularmusicsooftenusesmodeswithminorsev‐ enths ($7) that can just as well descend to the sixth or fifth as ascendtothetonic,thetermleadingnotecannotbemeaningfully usedtodesignatetheseventhdegreeinthosecontexts.Theterm SUBTONIC(q.v.)willbeusedinstead. LMRabbr.ListofMusicalReferences. LOOPSeeCHORDLOOP. LYDIANadj.heptatonicdiatonic‘CHURCH’ MODEwhich,withfas
tonic,runsfromftofonthewhitenotesofapianokeyboard.Its sevenascendingtone(1)andsemitone(½)stepsare111½11½ anditsscaledegrees123#4567. MATRIXn.(asin‘harmonicmatrix’,Vega1944). MEDIALCHORDn.neol.(2009)thechordplacedaftertheOUTGOING CHORDinathree‐orfour‐chordloop;inathree‐chordlooptheME‐ DIALandINCOMINGCHORDsareusuallyidentical.Themedialchord
isnormallythe (seepp.418‐420). MEDIANT n., from Latin mediare = to come between, in particular thenotethat‘comeshalfwaybetween’thetonicandthefifth,i.e. thethird,e.g.thenotee@ inCmajorore$inCminor.Tertialchords basedonthethirdscaledegree,themediant,aswellason IONIAN
Tagg:EverydayTonalityII—Glossary
493
scaledegrees6and2,belongtoacategoryofharmonywhichGer‐ mantheoristscallMediantikandwhichsomeanglophonedisciples ofGermanictheorisingabouteuroclassicalmusicinsistoncalling ‘mediantic’.Since‘mediantic’soundstoomuchlikemediaanticsto betakenseriouslyandsincethewordsdominantal(=relatingtothe ‘dominant’)andsubdominantal(=relatingtothe‘subdominant’)al‐ ready exist, and since they both add the adjectival suffix ‐al to a nounendingin‐ant,theonlylogicaladjectivalderivativeofmedi‐ antintheEnglishlanguageismediantal. MEDIANTALadj.relatingtoorhavingthecharacteroftheMEDIANT. MILKSAPn.colloq.derogatoryterm,probablyfirstcoinedbyJerry
LeeLewis,todesignatetheblandpopsongsrecordedintheUSA by ‘all those goddam Bobbies’3 —Bobby Darin, Bobby Rydell, BobbyVee,BobbyVinton,etc.—between1957(theendofrock‐ʹnʹ‐ roll)and1963(thearrivaloftheBeatlesandRollingStones).The harmonicepitomeofthisteen‐angelsortofpopwasthe{I vi IV V}vamp. MINICHROMATICS n., neol. (1976) a.k.a. ‘decorative chromaticism’
and opposed to ‘structural’ or ‘modulatory’ chromaticism. Mini‐ chromatics implies using chromaticism, within the standard tri‐ adicidiomofEuropeantertialharmony,asameansofcolouring anddecoratingthecurrenttonalityratherthanasameansofmod‐ ulatingawayfromit. MIXOLYDIANadj.HEPTATONICDIATONIC‘CHURCH’MODEwhich,with gastonic,runsfromgtogonthewhitenotesofapianokeyboard. Itssevenascendingtone(1)andsemitone(½)stepsare11½11½ 1anditsscaledegrees .
Moden.mus.+mnemonicfootnote.4 MORn.,adj.,abbr.middle‐of‐the‐road;genrelabelusedinUSme‐ 3.
IhaveneitherLewis’soriginalquotenorsource.Mysecondarysourceisa SwedishRadioseries,RockensRoll,onthehistoryofrockbyTommyRander andHåkanSandbladh(c.1974).Milksapshouldprobablyreadmilksop,spoken withaNorthAmericanaccent.
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dia. MOVEMENTn.mus.self‐containedsectionofasymphony,sonataor similartypeofeuroclassicalwork,thatusuallyhasitsownstruc‐ ture,tempo,homekey,etc. MUSEME n. (Seeger, 1960) minimal unit of musical meaning; see alsoTagg(2000:106‐108). MUSEMESTACKn.neol.(1979)compoundofsimultaneouslyoccur‐ ring musical sounds to produce one meaningful unit of ‘now sound’;componentsofamusemestackmayormaynotbemuse‐ maticinthemselves. MVT.n.mus.abbr.
MOVEMENT.
OUTGOING CHORDn.neol.(2009)thefirstchord,a.k.a. DEPARTURE CHORDafterthetonicinathree‐orfour‐chordloop;cf. INCOMING
CHORDandMEDIALCHORD.Formoredetail,seepp.418‐420. PARAMUSICAL adj. neol. (1983) literally ‘alongside’ the music, i.e.
semioticallyrelatedtoaparticularmusicaldiscoursewithoutbe‐ ingstructurallyintrinsictothatdiscourse;seealsoPMFC. PASSIMadv.etym.Lat.=‘hereandthere’;usedinreferencestoindi‐
catethatthephenomenoninquestioncanbefoundinseveralor manyplacesinthereferencedwork. PENDULUMSeeCHORDSHUTTLE. PENTATONIC adj.(ofmodesorscales)containingfivedifferent noteswithintheoctave;seepp.157‐167. PERCEPTIONALSeeAESTHESIC. 4.
Herearesomemnemonicsforheptatonicmodenames:[1]TheInternational DirectorateforPhonologicalListening,MixingAndLocomotion,i.e. IDPLMALfor‘Ionian,Dorian,Phrygian,Lydian,Mixolydian,Aeolian, Locrian’.[2]Ionianisthefirstmodeonthelistandtheromannumeralfor1— I—looksliketheletterI,asin‘ionian’;‘D’isfordorian,theDmode,and‘A’is foraeolian,theAmode;PhrygiawasinAsiaMinorwheretheflattwos( )of thephrygianmodeabound;LydiawasnextdoortoPhrygiabutisbetter knownasanFforFemalename,liketheFofthefaorF‐mode—thelydian. MixolydianisnexttolydianandGisnexttoF.
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495
PF.n.mus.abbr.pianoforte,i.e.piano. PHONOLOGICALLOOPn.ph.neurol.short‐term( 2ʺ),ongoingmini‐ chunkofaudioinformationinsidethebrain’sworkingmemory thatcanbeinstantlyrecalledandstrungtogetherwithuptothree othersinimmediatesuccessiontoproducealargerchunkof‘now sound’;seealsoEXTENDEDPRESENT. PHRYGIANadj.heptatonicdiatonic‘CHURCH’MODEwhich,witheas
tonic,runsfrometoeonthewhitenotesofapianokeyboard.Its sevenascendingtone(1)andsemitone(½)stepsare½111½11 anditsscaledegrees1$2$345$6$7. PL.abbrplural. PLAGAL adj.,viaLatinplagius(=oblique)fromGreekπλάγιος
(=sideways,slanting,askance,misleading),usedonlytoqualifya cadencefromIVtoI,asinan‘Amenending’;opposedto‘perfect’ or‘full’cadenceleadingfromVtoI.Plagalandperfectaretermsde‐ velopedbymusictheoriststodenoteculturalspecificitiesoftonal directionintheCentralEuropeanartmusictradition.Plagalisnot usedinthisbooktosuggestanythingoblique,misleadingorim‐ perfectbutsimplytoqualifytonalmovementineitherdirection betweenarelativeorabsolutetonic(I)andachordbasedonthat tonic’sfourthdegree(IV). PMFCneol.,n.(1991)PARAMUSICALfieldofconnotation,i.e.conno‐ tativelyidentifiablesemanticfieldrelatingtoidentifiable(setsof) musicalstructure(s);previously(1979)incorrectlycalled‘extramu‐ sicalfieldofassociation’. POÏETICadj.(fromFr.poïétique,MolinoviaNattiez)relatingtothe poïesis,i.e.tothemakingofmusicratherthantoitsperception (a.k.aconstructional);theoppositeof AESTHESIC(‘receptional’), poëticqualifiesthedenotationofmusicalstructuresfromthestand‐ pointoftheirconstructionratherthantheirperception,e.g.consor‐ dino,minormajor‐sevenchord,augmentedfourth,pentatonicism,etc. ratherthandelicate,detectivechord,allegro,etc. PRESENT‐TIMEEXPERIENCE
EXTENDEDPRESENT.
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PROGa.k.a.PROGROCKn.,adj.colloq.abbr.‘progressiverock’,asub‐ genreof ROCK.It’saproblematictermusedtolooselydesignate whateveritisthatartistslikeGenesis,GentleGiant,JethroTull, KingCrimsonandPinkFloydaresupposedtohaveincommon. QUARTALadj.(ofchordsandharmony)basedonthestackingof
fourths,notofthirds(TERTIAL);seeChapter10(pp.297‐355). Q.V.abbr.Lat.‘quodvide’=whichsee,i.e.lookup,inthesame
work,whateverimmediatelyprecededthe‘q.v.’. R&B(alsoRNB)n.abbr.RHYTHMANDBLUES,i.e.thebroadmusical styleandgenretypifiedbytheworkofsuchartistsasMuddyWa‐ ters,HowlinʹWolfandJohnLeeHooker(1950s‐70s),notthatof WhitneyHouston,MariahCarey,JanetJackson,MichaelJackson, BoyzIIMenetc.(1980s‐).Thislatterstyleissometimesmislead‐ inglycalled‘contemporaryR&B’. RÉ‐HEXATONICadj.mus.ofthehexatonicmodecontainingscalede‐
grees
;seepp.176‐177.
RÉ‐PENTATONICadj.mus.oftheanhemitonicpentatonicmodecon‐
tainingnothirdbutaminorseventh(
);seepp.161‐162.
REC.n.,v.,abbr.recording,recorded[by]. RECEPTIONALadj.,neol.(2001)SeeAESTHESIC. ROCKn.andattrib.adj.awiderangeofpopularandoriginallyEng‐ lish‐languagemusicsproducedsincethemid1950sforaprimarily youthaudience,moreusuallymalethanfemale.Thelabelrockcov‐ erseverythingfromPROGROCK(e.g.Genesis)tocountryrock(e.g. Byrds),frompunkrock(e.g.SexPistols)tofolkrock(e.g.Steeleye Span)andfromheavymetal(e.g.LedZeppelin)throughthrash (e.g.Metallica)todeathandspeedmetal(e.g.Slayer).It’swell‐nigh impossibletopinpointstylisticcommondenominatorsforsucha widerangeofmusics,apartfromthefactthatthemusicisusually loudanditstonalinstrumentselectricallyamplified.5Theheyday ofrocklastedfromthemid1960stothe1990sanditsmusiciansare mainly,thoughnotexclusively,male.Fun,anger,oppositionand corporealcelebration(‘kick‐ass’)areaestheticconceptsfrequently
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linkedtorock. ROCKANDROLL—basicallysynonymouswithROCK. ROCK’N’ROLLn.isamuchmorerestrictivetermthanROCKor‘rock androll’;itdenotesrockmusicproducedonlyinthe1950sand early1960sbysuchartistsasChuckBerry,BillHaley,LittleRich‐ ard,JerryLeeLewisandElvisPresley. SCALE DEGREEn.ph.(mus.)thepitchposition,expressedasanu‐
meral,ofatoneinrelationtoagiventonicwherethattonicisscale degree1,abbreviated‘ ’.Forexample,‘ ’(scaledegree‘flat three’)meanse$if isc@,bute@if isc#. SCALE STEP n.ph.(mus.)thepitchinterval,measuredinwhole tones,betweenadjacentnotesinascale:‘¼’=quartertone,‘½’= semitone,‘¾’=threequartersofatone,‘1’=awholetone,‘1½’= oneandahalftonesorthreesemitones. SCOT.abbr.Scotland,Scottish. SHARP SIDEn.therighthandsideofthe CIRCLE OF FIFTHS(p. 260), wheresharpsareincludedintherelevantkeysignatures:G,D,A, E,B[F#]. SHARPWARD[S].adv.andadj.proceedingclockwiseroundthe CIR‐ CLEOFFIFTHS(p. 260);theoppositeofFLATWARDS.Forexample,‘the
chordprogressionproceedssharpwardsfromFviaCtoG’(adver‐ bial);‘F‐C‐Gisasharpwardschordprogressionlandingonthe mixolydiantonic,G’(adjectival).Sharpwardsmovementisso calledbecausethenumberofsharpsinthemajor‐keysignatureof therootnoteofsuccessivechordsintheprogressionincreasesor thenumberofflatsdecreases.Forexample,intheprogressionG-D5.
Hereareajustfourpossiblecommonstylistictraits:[1]rock’sharmonic vocabularytendsmoreoftenthanmanyotherstylestobedorian,aeolianor mixolydianratherthan‘classical’;[2]mostrockisincommontimewithfre‐ quentanticipationsofbeats1and3inthebar;[3]itsorganologicalcoreisthe rockquartet,consistingoftwoelectricguitars,drumkitandelectricbass;[4]it isalmostalwaysloud,andintentionallyso.Timbreandacousticmise‐en‐ scèneareessentialaspectsofrockbutthereisneithertimenorspacehereto dealwithsuchadauntingsubject.IregretImustabandonthisfootnote.
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A ($VII-IV-I)thenumberofsharpsincreasesfrom1(G)via2(D) to3(A);intheprogressionB$‐F‐Cthenumberofflatsdecreases from2(B$)via1(F)to0(C).6 SHUTTLESeeCHORDSHUTTLE. SINGALONG n.atunetowhich,whenperformed,itiseasyfor
membersofanaudiencetosingalong;ingeneralatuneeasily sungbymanypeople,oranoccasiononwhichsuchtunesareper‐ formed(e.g.‘Fridaynightsingalongsattheoldpeople’shome’); adj.attrib.,e.g.‘asingalongeveningwithpianistFredBloggs’or ‘thesingalongchoruspartoftherecording’. SOLMISATIONn.mus.theuseofmnemonicsyllablestodesignate
thepitchofanoctave’ssevenbasicscalestepsinrelationtoeach other,asinTONICSOL‐FA(dohrémifasollati).Othersolmisationsyl‐ lablesarefoundinIndia(sa,re,ga,ma,pa,dha,ni),China( 上 (siong), 尺 (cei), 工 (gong), 凡 (huan),六 (liuo), 五 (ngou), 乙 (yik),Java,Japanand theArabworld(dāl,rāʹ,mīm,fāʹ,şād,lām,tāʹ);seealsop.97,ff. STRINGALONG;seeCHARITYSTRINGALONG. SUBTONICn.neol.(2009)theseventhdegreeinaheptatonicmode.
SUBTONICreplaces LEADING NOTE(q.v.)sincetheflat(minor)sev‐ enth,socommoninsomanyformsofpopularmusic,canjustas easilydescendtothesixthoffifthasleadtotheoctave/tonic.
SV.abbr.svensk/svenskt/svenska,Sverige,i.e.Swedish,Sweden. SYNCRISIS ]n.mus.neol.(2012)musicalformintermsof theaggregationofseveralsimultaneouslyongoingsoundspercep‐ tibleasacombinedwholeinsidethelimitsofthe EXTENDED PRESENT ,asdistinctfrom DIATAXIS (q.v.);etym.σύγκρισις=a puttingtogether,aggregate,combination,fromσυγκρίνω=to combine,compound,puttogether;deriv.adj.SYNCRITIC[ ] TERTIALadj.neol.(1998)(ofchords)basedonthestackingofthirds 6.
InanalysisclassesattheUniversitédeMontréalItranslatedsharpsideaslecôté dièseorlecôtédesdièsesandsharpwardsasverslesdièses.IfIhadstillbeenwork‐ inginSwedenIwouldhaveusedkorssidanforsharpsideandkorsriktadforshar‐ pwards.
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499
(seep.254,ff.). TETRACHORDnmus.sequenceoffourtones,typically(thoughnot
exclusively)inconsecutivescalarorder;therearenormallytwotet‐ rachordsinaheptatonicoctave(Figure74). Fig.74. SomeHEPTATONICMODEswithTETRACHORDsandSCALESTEPS
TIMP.n.mus.abbr.timpani. TONALadj.mus.havingthecharacteristicsofa TONEor TONEs,cf. TONICAL. TONALITY n.mus.system(codifiedoruncodified)accordingto
whichTONEsareconfigured(seep.55,ff.). TONATIM
adv.,neol.(1992) TONEfortoneor NOTEfor
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note;etym.VERBATIM=wordforword. TONEn.mus.NOTEwithaudiblefundamentalpitch(seep.55,ff.). TONICn.mus.centralormainreferencetone(p.56,ff.). TONICAL adj.mus.neol.(c.2008)havinga TONIC (p.56,ff.),cf. TONAL. TONICSOL‐FAn.mus.typeofSOLMISATIONusingthesyllablesdohré
mifasollatitodesignatescaledegrees1234567intheionian mode(European’majorscale’).DohcanbesettoanyoftheWest‐ ernoctave’stwelvetones.’Doh=C’meansthatthesevennotesused inthemusictowhichitapplieswillbe .’Doh=A ’ meansthesevennoteswillbea$ b$ c d$ e$ f g.Theabsolutepitch ofanotedesignatedintonicsol‐faisinotherwordsmovable(p.53, ff.) TR.orTRANS.abbr.translate[d]/translator. TRAD.adj.abbr.traditional. TRB.n.mus.abbr.trombone[s]. TRITONALadj.mus.(ofachordormode)containingtheintervalof
atritone(seep.99);nottobeconfusedwith TRITONIC;ant. ATRI‐ TONAL. TRITONICadj.mus.(usuallyofmodeormelody)containingonly threedifferenttonesinsideoneoctave; PENTATONIC,HEXATONIC, HEPTATONIC;nottobeconfusedwithtritonal. TRP.n.mus.abbr.trumpet[s] TURNAROUNDn.shortchordsequenceattheendofonesectionin
asongorinstrumentalnumber;theT’spurposeistofacilitatereca‐ pitulationofthecompleteharmonicsequenceofthatsection. TUNRAROUND CHORDn.,a.k.a INCOMING CHORD.Inchordloops,it isthefinalchordimmediatelyprecedingtherepriseoftheloop;i.e. thechordwhoserelationtothefirstchordworkslikea TURNA‐ ROUND(q.v.).Turnaroundchordsarealso INCOMINGexceptinin‐ stanceswhentheloop’sfirstandlastchordsarebothtonic,in whichcaseaturnarounddeviceisneededtomovefromthelast
Tagg:EverydayTonalityII—Glossary
501
backtothefirst. V.n.abbr.[1]verse;[2]version. VAMPn. CHORD LOOPwithseveralvariantswhosechordsgeneri‐
callyrun I‐vi‐ii/IV‐V .\ VLAn.mus.abbr.viola. VLC.n.mus.abbr.[violon]cello. VLN./VLNSn.mus.abbr.violin,violins. WW.n.mus.abbr.woodwind.
502
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Tagg:EverydayTonalityII—Referenceappendix
503
FFBkBib.fm.2014‐08‐02,01:53
FFBkBib.fm. 2014-08-02, 01:53
Reference appendix Explantions Table42:Symbolsusedinthisappendix filmproduction
musicalnotation
TVproduction
composer[s]
off‐airrecording
conductor
DVD
vocalist[s]
videocassette
performer[s]
YouTube
writerorlyricist
online
filmdirector
video/computergame
b
*
star,actor
phonogram(CD,LP,etc.)
publisher
audiocassette
arranger
writtenword coverversion
titletheme
firstpublished
audioexample
firstrecorded
§
section/paragraphnº
advert
▪
trackonalbum
Three example entries with explanations 1.ADDISON,John(1984) MurderSheWrote CBS SvTV(1990). JohnAddisoniscomposerofthetitletheme( )forthisTVproduction( ),first broadcastbyCBSin1984andrecordedoff‐air( )fromSwedishTVin1990. 2.HIGHNOON(1952) Criterion/Republic/UA FredZinnemann; 4Front054 1463(1998); DimitriTIOMKIN; FrankieLAINE; TexRITTER. Thesourceusedforthemusicthroughoutthis1952film( )fromproduction companiesCriterion,RepublicandUnitedArtists(UA),anddirected( )byZin‐ nemann,isavideocassette( )releasedin1998.Detailsofthesourcesusedfor thetitletheme( )composed( )byDimitriTiomkincanbefoundunderother entries( ):[1]Tiomkinhimself;[2]FrankieLaine,whosang( )apopularcover version( )of[3]theoriginalrecording( )sung( )byTexRitter. 3.MOZART,WA(1791)ConcertoforClarinetandOrchestrainAmajor,K622▪2nd mvt. PadrePadrone MACCHI(1977); OutofAfrica BARRY (1986). Detailsofthesoundcarriersusedassourcesforthesecondmovement(▪)ofthis Mozartconcertofrom1791areprovidedundertwootherauthorentries,towhich thereaderisreferred( ):[1]thealbumcontainingEgistoMacchi’smusicforthe
504
Tagg:EverydayTonalityII—Referenceappendix
film( )PadrePadrone(releasedin1977);[2]thealbum( )containingBarry’smu‐ sicforthe1986film( )OutofAfrica.
URLs Tosavespace,theinitial‘http://www.’ininternetaddresses(URLs)isomitted andreplacedwiththeONLINEorDOWNLOADicon .TodistinguishURLsourc‐ es from surrounding text, and to save space, this font is used, for example ‘ tagg.org’.DatesofvisitstoURLsareformattedyymmddandplacedinsquare bracketsaftertherelevantURL,forexample‘ tagg.org [100921]’.That’sclearer and much shorter than‘http://www.tagg.org; pageaccessed 21st September, 2010’.Astruck‐throughhyperlink,e.g. _q2TK-gefio ,indicatesthatthelink waspreviouslyoperativebutnolongerworkedatthetimeofpublication.
YouTube files YouTubefileaddressesarereducedtotheiruniquefilenamesandthere‐ currentURLprefix http://www.youtube.com/watch?v= isomitted.Forexample: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=msM28q6MyfY (42characters)appearsassimply msM28q6MyfY(1+11=12characters).Trycopyingthe‘msM28q6MyfY’partof the complete reference ‘ msM28q6MyfY [120122]’ into the YouTube Search window. It takes you directly to The Emmerdale Commutations, Version 6 andnothingelse.Thesystemdoesn’tevenbotheryouwithalltheother stuffitassumes‘youmightenjoy’.Ifyouarereadingthisonadigitalde‐ viceyoucanjustclickonthehyperlinktoaccessthereferencedfile. N.B.Thefunctionalityofhyperlinksinthisappendixwillvaryaccord‐ ingtofactorsexplainedinthe‘Publicationformatanddevices’section ofonlineinformationat tagg.org/mmmsp/BookFormats.html.
Standard source reference abbreviations IASPM:InternationalAssociationfortheStudyofPopularMusic|ITV:In‐ dependentTV(UK)|N.D.nodate|Orch:Orchestra|OUP:OxfordUni‐ versity Press | REC. recording/recorded | REV – revised | SRP2/SRP3: Sveriges Radio Program 2/3 (Swedish national radio channel 2 or 3) | SvTV:SverigesTelevision(SwedishnationalTV)|Symph:Symphony|tr. translator[s]|TV3:Scandinavia’scommercialthirdchannel|UA:United Artists|U.P.universitypress| XTR:extract[s]|XWOS:exceptwhereoth‐ erwisestated.
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505
0-9 25TVCOMMERCIALCLASSICS(TheBestThingSinceSlicedBread)(1994). ASVDigitalQS6137(1994). 300SCALESANDARPEGGIOSFORMOUNTAINSOCARINA uazu.net/ocarina/scales [14-414]
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b
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—(1999a,ed.)OfficialRetrospectiveofCubanMusic,2:Sonesyguarachas.CIDMUC/ TongaTNG4CD9903‐2. ▪ Nilda y el Dúo Gilberto Salazarte: ‘El beso discreto (Miguel Matamoros); ▪ Voces de Cuba (trio) & Antonio (Ñico Saquito) Fernández ‘Meneame la cuna’.
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AULD LANG SYNE (Scot.trad.) tagg.org/pix/MusExx/AuldLangSyne.jpg[140101]. AUTUMN LEAVES = FEUILLES MORTES,see KOSMA.
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b b
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